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85 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Clinical psychologist
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–PhD in clinical psychology
–Works in private practice, hospital or universities –Uses therapy to work with client –No medication |
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Psychiatrist
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–MD from medical school with concentration in psychiatry
–Works in private practice, hospital or universities –May use combination of therapy and medication to treat patients |
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Experimental psychologists
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–PhD in experimental psychology with specific research area
•Cognitive, Sensory, Social, Neuroscience, Personality, Developmental, Learning –Work in universities or private companies –Conduct basic and applied research -Professors |
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Human Factors
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–Can have Bachelors degree, but usually Masters or PhD
–Works for university or industry –Conducts applied research to solve problems in human-technology interaction •Human-Computer Interaction |
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Industrial/Organizational psychologist
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–Masters or PhD in I/O Psychology
–Works in universities or industries to consult on workplace psychology: performance and efficiency, training, personnel selection |
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Community Psychologist
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–PhD in Community Psychology
–Works for community agencies or government –Helps develop programs and policies regarding community issues such as crime prevention, drug abuse, public education about self-help programs available to them, etc. |
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School psychologist
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–Masters or PhD in school psychology
–Works in schools to deal with students with educational or behavioral problems, to develop policies regarding student behavior. |
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Counselors
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–Bachelors degree with certificate of specialization in specific area
•Educational, substance abuse, marital –Works under the supervision of MD or PhD, providing assessment/intake of clients, and some limited therapy. |
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Sport psychology
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–Understanding athletic performance, both physical and psychological aspects
–Works with athletes to improve performance |
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Forensic psychology
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–Application of psychological knowledge to the legal system
–Understanding of criminal behavior •Work for law enforcement to do profiling work –Understanding memory •Provide testimony regarding reliability of eyewitness reports •Consult lawyers on how to phrase questions, etc. |
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Ways of Knowing
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•Appeal to Authority
•Common Sense and Folk Wisdom –“Everyone knows that” –20/20 Hindsight •Revelation/Introspection/Reason |
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What is science?
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•A method for obtaining knowledge
–I.e., the “scientific method” •The body of knowledge obtained using that method |
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Hypothesis?
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A testable prediction
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–Independent variable:
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what the experimenter thinks is the likely cause.
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–Confounding variable(s):
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other variables that are linked to the independent variable in a regular way -makes interpreting the cause& effectrelationship difficult.
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–Extraneous variable(s):
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other variables that might influence the effect…keep these constant so that you don’t have Confounding Variables
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–Dependent variable:
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what the experimenter thinks is the effect.
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Control Group
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Baseline group, recieves no testing, results are compared to this group.
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Placebo Group
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Group that thinks they are being tested, but are given a placebo (sugar pill, water etc. instead of whats being tested). They will act as though they received test.
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Characteristics of a scientific theory
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i. Makes predictions – is testable
1. Does not explain “after the fact” ii. Is falsifiable iii. Must account for the data iv. Simplicity is preferred v. Can never be proven, only supported |
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Nature vs. Nurture debate
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i. Ethology and instinct; fixed action
patterns ii. Difficulty in separating their influences on behavior iii. Answer is usually “both” iv. Adoption studies v. Twin studies |
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The neuron
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Nerve Cell
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The neuron
i. Electrochemical means of transmission ii. Role of sodium and potassium channels iii. Role of myelin sheath iv. Resting potential v. Refractory period vi. Synapse |
Sodium and Potassium regulate the polarity of the neuron, and thus determine when it will fire. The channels are the paths through which the ions flow.
The myelin sheath insulates the axon so that the electrical charge does not escape. Resting potential is slightly negatively charged. Refractory period is the time it takes between firings of a neuron. Synapse is the connection between one neuron's axon and another's dendrite. |
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Role of neurotransmitters
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Regulate moods, learning, many other things to do with the brain.
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Peripheral nervous system:
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all structures outside the brain and spine
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Somatic nervous system
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•Sensory receptors that carry signals from sensory organs (skin, eyes, ears, tongue, nose) in to the brain
•Motor nerves that carry motor commands from brain and spine out to the muscles |
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–Autonomic nervous system
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•Nerves that support functions of internal organs (heart, lungs, kidneys, liver, digestive tract, etc.)
•2 major subdivisions: sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems |
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Sympathetic nervous system
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a. Fight or Flight response
b. Controls arousal response |
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Parasympathetic nervous system
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a. Returns body to resting state
b. Homeostasis |
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Central Nervous System
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Spine & Brain
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Spine
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1. Relay sensory and motor information to and from brain
2. Controls reflexive behavior ii. |
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Brain
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•Localization of function
–what do the different parts do? –Are different parts specialized for specific jobs? Hemispheric Lateralization |
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Hindbrain
- Pons, medulla, cerebellum |
most primitive level of the brain
–Brain stem: life support •Medulla and pons –Cerebellum: timing and coordination of motor acts; development of skilled motor abilities (smooth movements) |
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Midbrain
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Midbrain:sensory and motor areas
–Reticular formation •relay station for incoming sensory signals •Plays a role in arousal and waking up higher levels of the brain |
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Structures of the forebrain
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•Hypothalamus
•Thalamus •Corpus callosum •Limbic system •Cerebral cortex |
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Hypothalamus
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•Interconnected with pituitary gland (master gland of endocrine system)
•Plays a role in motivation, emotion, sex drive, aggression |
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Thalamus
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•Organizes sensory input and relays to appropriate centers in the brain
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Limbic system
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•Connected to hypothalamus
–Serving motivational needs of hypothalamus –Coordinate behaviors to satisfy those basic drives and desires •Hippocampus: significant role in memory –Formation of new memories •Amygdala: controls fear and aggression –Electrical stimulation can invoke highly aggressive responses |
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Corpus callosum
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Connects the 2 hemispheres
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Cerebral cortex
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•Areas of higher thought, perception, decision making, personality
–Most advanced (evolutionarily speaking) part of the brain •Divided into multiple lobes –Frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobesFrontal |
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Frontal lobe
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•Personality, decision making, higher thought
•Motor cortex: strip of cortex that controls specific parts of the body –Hemispheric lateralization •Right motor cortex controls left side of body and vice versa •Broca’s area: speech production center |
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Temporal lobe
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•Auditory cortex: processing of information from the ears
–Wernicke’s area: speech perception center •Some high level visual functioning, including perception of human faces |
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Parietal lobe
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•Somatosensory cortex: strip of cortex (right next to motor cortex on the border of the frontal lobe) that maps sensations from specific parts of the body.
–Hemispheric lateralization •Right somatosensory cortex receives signals from left side of body and vice versa •Mathematical reasoning •Visual-spatial reasoning and mental rotations |
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Occipital lobe
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•Dedicated to visual processing
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Methods for studying functions - brain
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1. Ablation method - destroy a portion and see what happens
2. Electrical stimulation - stimulate a portion and see what happens 3. Electrical recording 4. Imaging |
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Developmental Psychology:
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•Scientific study of how people change over the life-span
–Mechanisms underlying change •Neurological, physical, social/environmental •Emphasizes continuity over the lifespan –Developmental change is not discreteResearch |
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Method of study (Developmental psych)
–Longitudinal design |
follow an individual or group over a long period of time
•Advantages –No need to worry about group differences •Disadvantages –Takes a long time to complete –Attrition |
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Method of study (Developmental psych)
–Cross-sectional design |
•Compare different age groups (cohorts) at the same time
•Advantages –Completed relatively quickly •Disadvantages –Group differences due to external events •Cohort effect- Historical events and other generational differences cause large differences between age groups –Generation Gap |
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Method of study (Developmental psych)
Sequential Design |
–Combine cross-sectional and longitudinal techniques
–Sample different cohorts and follow both longitudinally |
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Maturational theory of development:
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development follows a genetically specified plan
–Recall ethology and evolutionary advantageous instinctual behavior –Critical periods: age range for which certain things mustbe learned or they neverwill be –Sensitive periods: age range for which certain things are more easilylearned |
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Theory: innate Language Acquisition Device
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–Needs environmental input (hearing others speak) to become activated
–Without input during critical period, it shuts down |
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Piaget’s Stage Model
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•Children are like naïve scientists
–Develop naïve theoriesabout the world, other people, etc called schemas –Test those theories/schemas by interacting with world –New information is assimilatedinto the schemas –If new information is inconsistent with schema, the schema must be changed to accommodatethe data –Large scale accommodation results in moving from one stage of development to the next |
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Piaget’s stages
•Sensorimotor stage: birth to ~2 years |
–Basic understanding of own body (motor), awareness of outside world using senses
–Develops awareness of object permanence •Things continue to exist when not in view •Violation of Expectation Method using Impossible Events |
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Piaget’s stages
•Preoperational stage: ~2-6 or 7 years |
•Understand symbolic reasoning
–Using words to stand for things –Pretend play •Cognitive limitations |
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14Piaget’s stages
•Concrete operational stage: ~7-12 years |
•Understand basic logical operations
▫Can perform mental operations like visualizing another’s perspective, reversing an event, etc ▫Develop a “theory of mind” •Limitations ▫Difficulty with abstract concepts and reasoning ▫Difficulty with “hypothetical reasoning” E.g., “Draw a picture of someone with 3 eyes” Some respond by saying “nobody has 3 eyes” Others always draw the extra eye on the face, do not realize it could go on hand or elsewhere |
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Piaget’s stages
•Formal operational stage |
–Adult level reasoning
–Understands abstract concepts and hypothetical casesAnother |
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Vygotsky and Zones of Proximal Development
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–Defines what a child can do independently vs. what s/he needs help from others to do
–Recognizes using age-appropriate toys and tasks to avoid frustration –Scaffolding •Parent should avoid being too hands on when task is within zone of proximal development -to encourage self-esteem and intellectual growth •Parent should help out when task is outside the zone -helps them learn new things without too much frustration |
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Social and Personality development
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•Up to 6 months
▫Crying and smiling ▫Social referencing: imitating facial expressions of adults •Up to 2 years ▫Crying when need something, angry/frustrated, pain ▫Laughing/happiness ▫Contentment •Between 2-3 years ▫Pride/shame and embarrassment ▫Envy ▫Empathy •Emotional regulation ▫Learning to manage emotions |
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Infants can be classified into 3 basic temperaments (personality types)
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–Easy: accept new situations without fuss, eat and sleep on schedule
–Difficult: no schedule, irritable and fussy in new situations –Slow to warm up: irritable in new situations but slowly adapted |
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Emotional attachment
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•Emotional bond between child and primary caregiver (parent)
–Recall Lorenz and imprinting with ducks •6-8 mos: stranger anxiety •1-3 years: separation anxiety |
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Types of attachment
•Strange Situation study (Ainsworth, 1971) –Parent takes child in room with toys –Stranger comes in and plays with child –Parent leaves, eventually returns –Observe and describe child’s responses to each |
•Securely attached: explore room freely but “keep an eye on” parent, react positively to stranger, distressed when parent leaves, greet her when s/he returns
•Insecurely attached(2 types) –Anxious resistant: do not explore, distressed when parent leaves, are not soothed by his/her return –Anxious avoidant: explore room without regard for parent, do not cry when parent leaves, do not react when parent returns |
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Harlow and the nature of love
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Baby monkeys will attach themselves to a cloth, soft surrogate mother as opposed to a wire surrogate mother. Even if the cloth mother cannot feed them.
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Parenting styles
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•Authoritarian
▫Requires complete obedience, punitive discipline ▫Children tend to be obedient, quiet, unhappy •Authoritative ▫Values personal growth of child ▫Rules are firmly set and enforced, but rule flexibility is allowed as child grows ▫Children tend to be successful, work well with others, happy •Permissive ▫Completely accepting, always positive, never punishing ▫Allows child to regulate own activities ▫Children tend to lack self-control, unhappy •Rejecting/Neglecting ▫No rules, no guidance, no support |
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Development of moral reasoning
•Famous work by Kohlberg (1963) –Story: Heinz’s wife was dying from cancer. There was a rare drug that might save her, but the druggist who made the drug for $200 would not sell it for less than $2000. Heinz tried hard, but he could only raise $1000. The druggist refused to give Heinz the drug for that price even though Heinz promised to pay the rest later. So Heinz broke into the store to steal the drug. What do you think? Should Heinz have stolen the drug? Why or why not? –Classified the reasons offered by subjects who read the story –Grouped them into different levels of moral reasoningLevel |
Stage 1: Obedience Orientation
–Most children and adolescents, some adults –Moral decisions made based on avoiding punishment Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation –Mainly adolescents, some adults –Moral decisions made based on receiving reinforcement Stage 3: Interpersonal Orientation –Adolescents and adults –Behavior for approval from others Stage 4: Social System Orientation –Adolescents and adults –Moral decisions based on general societal principles •Law and order exists for the common good Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation –Mainly just adults –Societal rules supposed to benefit all members of society –but they don’t always •Rules become invalid if they don’t benefit a member (individual) of society •Contract = accept societal rules only when they truly are beneficial for all involved Stage 6: Universal Ethics Orientation –Adults (very few, according to Kohlberg) –Personal moral code -> abstract moral principles, transcendent of societal codes |
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Gilligan (1982) argues that Kohlberg’s work omits feminine styles of moral reasoning
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–Level 1: Orientation to Individual Survival
•Moral decisions made with regard to self preservation –Level 2: Goodness as Self-Sacrifice •Caring for others as a duty –Level 3: Morality of Non-violence •Includes avoiding harm to self and others •Interconnectedness of self and others |
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Prenatal development stages
Germinal period: Conception -end of 2nd week |
Begin as single cell (fertilized egg in fallopian tube)
–Rapid cell division causes rapid growth in zygote –Monozygotic twinning can occur at this stage •Zygote still undifferentiated •If split into 2 parts, both will develop into 2 separate embryos –End of germinal period: zygote embeds into uterine wall •Triggers hormonal changes to stop menstruation •Zygote has about 60-70 cells at this point •Forms hollow spherical shape called blastocyst –Cell differentiation, twinning cannot occur |
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Prenatal development stages
Embyronic Stage •Weeks 3-8 |
Large degree of cell differentiation occurs
–Layersin the blastocyst begin to form –Ectoderm •Will become hair, skin, nervous system –Mesoderm •Will become bones, muscles, circulatory system –Endoderm •Will become digestive system and lungs |
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Prenatal development stages
Fetal Stage •Weeks 9-38 (birth) |
All organs and body parts mostly well formed
–After week 9 its all about growth –By week 17: detectable voluntary movement –22 weeks: age of viability (can survive on its own) |
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Effects of teratogens - Substances or environmental conditions that can impair prenatal development
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Thalidomide (sleeping meds known to cause deformations of arm, legs) & other prescription meds
•Legal and Illegal drugs –Tobacco: low birth weight –Alcohol: Fetal alcohol syndrome –Cocaine, heroin: addiction, mortality risk, premature birth •Rubella: if contracted by mother, can cause blindness and/or deafness in child •Some diseases can be transmitted to the child (HIV, Hepatitis) •Environmental hazards/pollution Fetal Alcohol Syndrome •Syndrome due to maternal alcohol abuse –Due to binge drinking or regular heavy drinking, esp. early in pregnancy •Abnormal facial char’s, impaired learning, motor coordination, problem solving •Fetal Alcohol Effects: even small amounts of drinking during pregnancy can lead to behavioral changes –Mother’s who reported drinking only 1x per week were 3x more likely to have children with: •Clinical aggression problems •Delinquency •Attention deficit |
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Cephalocaudal principle
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The size of the head vs the rest of the body starts out very large (1/2 the body during development) and goes down (<1/8 the body at adulthood)
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Growth: Genetic and Hormonal influences
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Heredity/Genes
–Strong role for height •r = 0.9 for height in identical twins •r = 0.5 for height in fraternal twins •r = 0.7 between child’s height and average of parent’s height •Hormones –Pituitary gland secretes Human Growth Hormone (HGH) –HGH causes liver to release somatomedin: muscle and bone growth –Thyroid gland secretes thyroxine: neuronal development |
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Biology and growth: nutrition
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12lb 3-month old needs ~600 calories per day
–~50 calories per lb compared to ~15 calories per lb for adult •Breast-feeding –Mother’s milk is best food for babies •Sufficient nutrients •All natural = fewer contaminants than commercial products –Breast fed babies: •Get sick less often •Fewer digestive problems (diarrhea, constipation) •Adjust to solid foods more easily |
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Motor development
•Born with motor reflexes |
•Startle reflex: arms move out and then in when startled or with sensation of falling
•Grasping reflex •Stepping reflex: rhythmic leg movement when held up and feet allowed to touch floor |
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Motor milestones
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•< 6 months: Head too big for crawling/walking until rest of body catches up
–Crawling ~6 mos •8-9 mos: standing with help •10-11 mos: cruising •12-15 mos: walking alone |
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Perceptual development
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•Newborn has good sense of taste and smell
–Demonstrate taste preferences –Respond to changes in mother’s milk –Recognize own mother’s milk by smell |
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Perceptual Development: Touch
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–Fairly well developed
•Innate reflexes require sensing by touch |
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Perceptual development
•Hearing |
–Fetus responds to external sounds by 7-8 months in utero
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Perceptual development
•Vision |
–Poor acuity (blurry)
–Poor contrast sensitivity •Need high contrast to make out details (sharp distinction between light and dark area) –Limited color vision –Normal adult levels sometime between 1-3 years |
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Methods for testing infant vision
1. Preferential looking 2. Visually Evoked Potential 3. OKN 4. Visual cliff |
Preferential Looking
•Shown 2 images, if they spend more time looking at one, means they can tell the difference Visually Evoked Potential •Record neural activity in visual cortex Optokinetic nystagmus (OKN) –Move sine-wave grating laterally –Eyes reflexively follow the grating –If they can see the lines, will exhibit OKN reflex –If cannot see the lines, do not exhibit OKN Visual Cliff -Depth perception, baby provoked to crawl over clear glass |
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Adolescence
i. Primary and secondary sex characteristics |
Physical changes and puberty
•Primary sex characteristics (specific to sexual reproduction) –Males:growth of genitals and spermarche –Females: menarche •Secondary sex characteristics –Body and pubic hair, growth of breasts (in females), voice change and facial hair (in males) |
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Adolescence
ii. Identity crisis |
•Identity achievement: successful end to struggle with possible roles
•Foreclosure: premature identity decision, without critical analysis of roles, in line with parental or societal pressure •Negative identity: premature identity decision opposite of parental or societal pressure •Identity diffusion: failure to adopt any one identity, flightiness, apathy •Identity moratorium: experimentation with various roles without commitment |
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Aging and senescence
i. Primary and secondary aging effects |
•Primary aging effects: changes directly due to advancing age
•Secondary aging effects: changes correlated with age, but due to other factors such as illness *Gradual physical changes –Growth stops –Loss of collagen in skin by 1% per year •Skin gets thinner, less flexible, wrinkles –Gray hair and hair loss –Decrease in organ efficiency |
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Aging
Sensory deficits |
•Vision: about 10% in late adulthood can see without correction
•Presbyopia: change in lens shape -difficult to focus close-up •Cataracts: clouding of lens -difficult to see, “low vision” •Glaucoma: optical nerve degeneration, can lead to blindness if untreated •Macular degeneration: loss of photoreceptors, esp in fovea, –“low vision” –Opposite of tunnel vision •Hearing: fairly common loss over age 65 •Presbycusis: age related loss –Primary Aging Effect •Tinnitus: exposure related loss •Touch –Cell loss in the skin –Reduced sensitivity and acuity to touch –Reduction in thermal sensitivity •Chemical senses –Fairly frequent reduction in taste and smell sensitivity –Decline in # of taste buds (by as much as 2/3) –Foods begin to taste different |
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Aging
Motor deficits |
•Decrease in reaction time
–Effect on driving (+vision) •Movements generally slower |
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Aging
Social factors (stress and loss of independence) |
•Maintained activity
–Selective optimization: doing things as before, but adjusted somewhat •Genetics –Self-esteem determined by genetics? •Disengagement –Narrowing social world •Spirituality •Ageism –Elder abuse (as a social problem) •Socio-economic factors –Poverty, health care, living at home, lack of independence •Health problems –Primary and secondary aging effects •Erikson’s aging crisis: Integrity vs. Despair –“Did I have a good life?” –“Am I happy with what I did or did I waste all those years?” –If “no”, then one feels despair for impending death and anxiety, low self-esteem •Loss of mobility •Loss of driver’s license –Refusal to quit driving •Need coping strategies to deal with major life events –Stave off: depression, anxiety and stress •Major life changes: –Retirement –Divorce –Death of spouse –Empty nest –Loss of independence, self-sufficiency –Loss of health –Loss of abilities –Relocation (nursing home, etc.) |
