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60 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Mental representations
Intentionality: |
the mind uses mental representations
-people are “intentional agents” ◦We attribute to them beliefs and attitudes to explain and predict their behavior ◦Does not mean intentionality is “real” |
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Mental representations
Act psychology: |
-to classify the kinds of mental acts
-All mental acts refer to mental representations |
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Mental representations
Visual imagery |
Visual Evidence showing it is real
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Language
Rules |
–Grammar = Rules for how to combine symbols into meaningful units
–Syntax = Rules for ordering words in an utterance |
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Language
Units/Hierarchy |
Phonemes - smallest meaningful unit of speech
Morphemes - Phonemes combine to make morphemes –Smallest units that have their own meaning •Morphemes combine to make words •Words combine into phrases •Phrases make utterances |
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Language
Speech perception |
Look for speech units in sound (waveform or spectrogram) - Formants
Categorical perception experiment -Evidence for perception based on phonemes Prosody - •Use of intonation to add meaning –Upturn in pitch at end of question |
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Language
Language learning Learning theories and behaviorism |
Behaviorism: language learned via imitation
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Language
Language and thought -Whorf’s linguistic relativity hypothesis -Vygotsky |
Whorf’s linguistic relativity hypothesis
–Language not simply a mirror of mental representations –Language precedes and influences thought –Language restricts and determines our understanding of the world (Eskimos & Words for snow) Vygotsky - cognitive development (problem solving) mirrors linguistic development –Toddlers “talk to themselves” while working through a problem –Gradually, it becomes “subvocal speech” or the “inner monologue” |
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What is Language?
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•Verbal expression of mental representations
–Word is a symbol that refers to the mental representation |
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Language
Language learning Chomsky and the LAD |
Noam Chomsky: grammar and syntax too complex for imitation
–Language Acquisition Device (LAD) –Specialized innate mechanism for learning language •Syntactic structures are built-in to the brain •Specifics (vocabulary) filled in via experience |
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Language
Language learning --Pattern of language development in infancy |
--At birth, infants can distinguish all human phonemes
◦4-6 months: babbling using all possible phonemes ◦7-11 months: babbling using only phonemes in native language Learned to ignore unused phonemes Critical periods: must be exposed to speech during first few years of life in order to learn it |
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Reasoning
--Deductive and Inductive logic |
Deductive Logic - Premises - > truth (if P then Q, if Q then R, therefore if P then R)
•Inductive logic –From the particular to the general –Given observations (data) on particular facts, induce the general principle to explain them “The sun has risen in the east every day of my life, therefore it will rise again in the east tomorrow” |
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Reasoning
Human problem solving --Algorithms --Heuristics |
•Algorithms vs. Heuristics
–Algorithm: a formula that automatically generates correct results •Takes into account all of the relevant information –Heuristic: a rule of thumb that may usually be right be is prone to error |
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Reasoning
Human problem solving --Expertise |
•What makes an expert an expert?
–Avoiding biases? –Expert schemas and scripts •Schema: mental structure or framework for organizing knowledge •Script: type of schema dealing with procedures, or specific sequences/steps Chess Grandmaster vs Computer |
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Reasoning
Human problem solving --Biases |
•Representativeness bias
–Use of stereotypes •Availability bias –Relying on salient information •Confirmation bias –Seeing what you want to see –You only look for instances that confirm what you already know, instead of falsifying your beliefs |
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Early theories of Intelligence
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•Physiognomy - •To judge someone’s nature by physical appearance
•Facial traits reveal character, aptitude and personality •Craniometry •Began with study of hominid anthropology –Noting increasing skull volume as hominids evolved -Brain size determines intelligence (This is false) - Used to support racist ideas •Phrenology -•Intelligence is compartmentalized in the brain –Greater skill in one area requires larger compartment –Pattern of bumps and depressions on skull reveal the size of the compartments –Intelligence testing by measuring bumps and depressions |
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Intelligence
Nature vs. Nurture debate |
–Is intelligence innate?
•Genetically specified/biological basis –Is intelligence a product of our environment? •Nutrition, health, education, rewards -Both |
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Nature vs. Nurture debate
--Darwin’s influence |
•Darwin: establishing a basis of comparative biology
•Functionalism: all behavior is adaptive (evolved) •Behaviorism: mechanisms of learning are simple, same in animals and humans |
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Nature vs. Nurture debate
--Galton’s studies |
Found:
•Children of intelligent parents tended to be intelligent themselves –I.e., high correlation between intelligence* of parent and child •Don’t forget, “Correlation does not imply causation!” –Problem: rearing environment –Solution: twin and adoption studies •Twin and adoption studies are equivocal –Support a genetic component for intelligence –Also support an environmental component |
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Nature vs. Nurture debate
--Social Darwinism and eugenics |
•Spencer, Galton, others were all “social darwinists”
–Survival of the fittest applied to persons in a social environment •Galton advocated eugenics –Selective breeding and forced sterilization to improve society |
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Nature vs. Nurture debate
--James McKeen Cattell’s studies |
James McKeen Cattell: studied the correlations between physical and psychological measures….found none
–Strength, sensory tests, reaction time are NOT indicators of intelligence! |
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Intelligence
--Binet’s test |
Alfred Binet: invented the modern intelligence test
–The IQ (intelligence quotient) test –Measured only psychological abilities –Measured several domains of intelligence •Picture naming, memory, math, spatial reasoning, language comprehension, analogical reasoning, etc. |
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IQ Calculation
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•IQ (intelligence quotient)
–Operational definition of intelligence •Mental Age/Chronological Age x 100 –10 year old scores like a typical 10 year old •10/10 x 100 = 100 IQ –10 year old scores like a typical 15 year old •15/10 x 100 = 150 IQ –10 year old scores like a typical 5 year old •5/10 x 100 = 50 IQ –For a 35 year old?? •Use percentile score instead •50th percentile = 100 IQ |
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Intelligence Theories
--Thurstone |
collection of specific mental abilities
–Focused on learning (nurture side of debate) |
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Intelligence Theories
--Spearman |
Spearman’s 2-factor theory
–General factor “g” •General intelligence, innate –Ability factors “s” •Specific abilities, learned |
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Intelligence Theories
--Cattell |
Cattell’s 2-factor theory
–Crystallized intelligence “gc” •Applying knowledge to solve problems –Fluid intelligence “gf” •Ability to deal with novel problems |
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Intelligence Theories
--Carroll |
Carroll’s Three-stratum model
–General, Broad and Narrow levels of intelligence •General: g factor •Broad: domain specific abilities •Narrow: performance on specific tests |
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Intelligence Theories
--Sternberg |
Sternberg’s triarchic theory
–Metacomponent: higher order cognitive skills for planning and strategizing a task –Performance component: actual mental processes for performing a task (recognition, memory retrieval) –Knowledge-acquisition component: perception, attentionTheories |
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Intelligence Theories
--Gardner |
•Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligence
–Linguistic: use language, communicate –Logical/mathematical –Visuospatial: mental rotation, spatial reasoning –Musical: perceive pitch and rhythm, produce music –Bodily/kinesthetic: motor coordination* –Interpersonal: relate to other people –Intrapersonal: understand oneself –Naturalistic: see and understand the world around you –Existential: ability to ponder the meaning of life |
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Intelligence Theories
--Emotional intelligence |
•Emotional Intelligence
–Empathy: ability to understand emotions of others and respond appropriately –To be aware of one’s own emotions, and regulate them |
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Evaluating IQ tests
-Achievement vs. Aptitude -Reliability -Validity -Standardization -Bias |
-Achievement:–Measure potential for future learning
vs. Aptitude:–Measure what you already know -Reliability: consistency of a measurement –Test-retest reliability: To achieve the same score when administered twice -Validity: accuracy of a measurement -Standardization: Development of norms: what are people expected to know; what defines normal intelligence? •Assumption: IQ is normally distributed •Median IQ defined as 100 -Bias: –Outcome bias: test fails to estimate a person’s true intellectual ability –Predictive bias: test predicts outcomes (high criterion-related validity) for only certain groups |
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Motivation
--Biological instinct |
Fixed Action Patterns - Many behaviors instinctual
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Motivation
--Freudian instinct |
•Instinctual urges/desires create tension to be reduced
•Death Instinct (aka Thanatos): instinctual urge for death/violence •Libido: instinctual urge to create (sex) –Jung »Eros: drive for inter-connectedness (female specific) »Logos: drive for knowledge (male specific) •Destrudo: instinctual urge to destroy –Opposite of libido –Derives from Death Instinct |
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Motivation
-Biological drives |
•Homeostasis: a state of internal physiological equilibrium
–Body strives to maintain homeostasis •Hunger (blood sugar, weight regulation) •Thirst (fluid regulation) •Warmth (body temperature regulation) |
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-Psychological factors in eating
-Eating disorders |
•Psychological factors over-ride biological factors
–Cleaning your plate or having dessert even if full –Dieters not eating even when hungry •Eating as positive reinforcement –Good taste and pleasure in eating •Societal standards of beauty and attractiveness •Environmental factors –Abundance of high calorie/low nutrient foods (aka junk food) –Importance of value (getting more for less) and “supersizing” menu items –Technology and decreased physical activity •Anorexia nervosa –Fear of being fat, refusal to eat, distorted body image •Bulimia nervosa –Fear of being fat, binge and purge behavior, distorted body image |
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Sex
-Evolution -Hormones -Cultural and environmental factors |
•Evolutionary perspective:
–Pleasure is a reinforcement to increase sex and mating •Have more offspring, continue the species •Hormones –Hypothalamus triggers pituitary to release gonadotropins into the bloodstream •Cause testes to produce testosterone •Cause ovaries to produce estrogen •Cultural norms about: –Sexual customs/practices –Premarital sex –Promiscuity –Sexual orientation •Pervasive environmental stimuli –Sex depictions in mass media |
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Existential needs
-Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs -Achievement motivation |
Existential psychology: humans are motivated to achieve their full potential
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs- Pyramid showing base as most basic needs (food, clothing, shelter), once those are met you need less basic things up to the need for self actualization. •Need for Achievement –2 independent dimensions •Motive for success: driven to thrill of victory at all costs •Fear of failure: driven to avoid failure more than achieve success |
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Emotion
--Evolutionary perspective |
Evolution: adaptive function
–Fear keeps us alive –Anger helps fight back –Love helps strengthen bonds for mating and reproduction –Distress evokes aid from others (babies) |
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Emotion
--Common sense theory |
Common sense:
•Environmental stimulus --> interpret the situation •Interpretation --> emotional response •Emotional response --> physiological/physical response –Crying, smiling, laughing, running away, fighting |
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Emotion
--James-Lange theory -Evidence for it -Problems with it |
•Environmental stimulus --> interpretation
•Interpretation --> physiological/physical reaction •Physiological reaction --> emotion Support: •Facial Feedback Hypothesis- says we are happy because we smile, or are sad because we frown Problems: Predicts that each emotion has a specific physiological precursor –Few precursors have been found •When deprived of sensory feedback from body, humans and animals still have emotional responses |
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Emotion
--Cannon-Bard theory |
•Emotion and physiological reaction are independent responses to environmental stimulus
(Feel & Do at the same time, independently) |
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Social Psychology
-Attributions: internal and external |
•Two primary types of attributions
–Personal (internal): Someone’s personality was the cause of their actions –Situational (external): Outside factors were the cause of their actions |
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Social Psychology
--Roles of consistency, distinctiveness and consensus |
•Consistency
–Does the person behave like that consistently? –Was this a rare deviation from their normal actions? •Distinctiveness –Does the person exhibit this behavior in a wide range of situations? •Consensus –Do other people exhibit the same behavior in the same situations? |
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Biases
--Fundamental attribution error |
•Fundamental Attribution Error
–Tend to attribute internal causes when explaining other person’s behaviors –Tend to attribute external causes when explaining our own behaviors |
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Biases
--Self-serving bias |
•Self-serving bias (self-attributions)
–Internal attributions when we succeed –External attributions when we fail |
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Biases
--Primacy effect |
•Primacy effect
•We attach too much importance to the initial information we learn about a person •The famous “1st impression” |
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Biases
--Stereotypes |
•Stereotypes
•Generalized belief about a group of people •In-group favoritism •Out-group derogation •Out-group homogeneity bias (“they’re all alike” |
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Biases
--Self-fulfilling prophecy |
•Self-fulfilling prophecy
•We tend to act towards others in ways that make them conform to our expectations about them |
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Attitude-Behavior link
-Do behaviors cause attitudes? ---Cognitive Dissonance ---Self-Perception theory |
-Attitudes do not predict behavior
•Cognitive Dissonance: we try to maintain consistency in our beliefs and actions •Inconsistency creates dissonance: unpleasant psychological state ○Physiological arousal is a byproduct •We are motivated to decrease dissonance by changing our attitudes Self-Perception Theory •We infer our attitudes by observing our behavior |
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Attitude-Behavior link
-Changing attitudes ---Factors affecting persuasiveness of a message |
•Communicator credibility
–Expertise –Trustworthiness •The message –Present both sides, and refute one •The audience –Central route: when people analyze the argument –Peripheral route: when people ignore the facts and focus on superficial aspects of the message |
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Social factors that affect behavior
--Hawthorne effect ----Inverted-U shape of arousal on performance |
•Mere presence of others improves performance on simple tasks
–Hawthorne Effect –Being watched creates arousal •Inverted U shape and arousal –Sometimes their presence impairs performance |
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Social factors that affect behavior
--Social facilitation |
•Social facilitation effect
–We tend to perform the dominant response when others are present –Dominant = highly learned, well practiced response |
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Social factors that affect behavior
--Social Roles and Stanford Prison Experiment |
•Social norms: rules for how to act in social situations
•Social role: rules for how someone in a particular position should behave –Role conflict: when one has multiple roles that conflict –Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo, 1973) - Put subjects in a prison environment, some guards and some inmates - guards will be cruel to the inmates, inmates will be very submissive |
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Social factors that affect behavior
--Conformity --Asch's study --Normative and Informational social influence |
•Conforming to norms set by a group
Asch Study: 7 subjects sat around a table and judged the lengths of lines –Task was easy, unambiguous -6 of them are confeds, answer incorrectly on purpose. -The actual subject will follow the group when they obviously answer wrong. •Informational social influence –We look for others for information in ambiguous situations •Normative social influence –We seek the rewards of going along with a group (being accept) –Avoid the rejection of others |
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Social factors that affect behavior
--Obedience and Milgram's study |
Obedience:•Explicit commands to conform to a rule or standard of behavior
Milgram Study: measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience. |
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Social factors that affect behavior
--Compliance techniques |
Getting people to do want you want them to do -persuasively
Norm of reciprocity (the Golden Rule) If someone else does something for you, you should do so in return Perform an unsolicited favor before making a request Door in the face technique Initially make a large unreasonable request, expecting a refusal; then ask for smaller request Subject feels pressure to reciprocate the offer Foot in the door technique Start with a small request, then gradually make larger requests (get subject in the mode of saying “yes” Lowballing Used in sales -get someone to agree to a low price, then at last minute raise the price |
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Social factors that affect behavior
--Group behavior |
The individual within a group
Social loafing In workgroups, individuals work less hard than if alone Diffusion of responsibility Recall story of Kitty Genovese Deindividuation Loss of individuality that leads to disinhibited behavior e.g., when a protest slowly evolves to a riot |
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Social factors that affect behavior
--Group decision making |
--Group decision making
Group polarization When group is of like-mind, the average opinion of the group is more extreme than the average of the individuals in the group Groupthink Members of the group suspend critical thinking when seeking consensus |
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Social factors that affect behavior
--Attraction to others --Factors that influence attraction |
Judging attractiveness of others
Physical proximity and mere exposure effect Repeated exposure to the same stimulus increases are liking for it Similarity Opposites attract or Birds of a feather flock together? The latter. Averageness Digital manipulation of photos to create a more “average” male or female face is judged more attractive |
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Social factors that affect behavior
--Relationships --Comparison level --Comparison level for alternatives |
•Social Exchange Theory
–Decisions to stay in relationship is governed by rewards vs. costs –Rewards: companionship, emotional support, satisfaction of other needs –Costs: effort to maintain relationship or satisfy the other’s needs, arguments, conflicting goals –Comparison level: reward/cost expectation in current relationship •Determines satisfaction in current relationship –Comparison level for alternatives: reward/cost expectation for another relationship •Determines level of commitment to current relationship |
