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50 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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The 5 traditional senses
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Vision
Hearing (audition) Touch (tactile sense) Taste (gustation) Smell (olfaction) |
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Other senses
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Balance (vestibular sense)
Body posture (proprioception) Body movement (kinesthesis) |
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Sensory interactions
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Vision + Touch
Molyneaux’s question - Suppose a man blind his whole life, which knew the shape of an object by touch. If his sight were to suddenly turn on, would he be able to know the shape by vision alone? Vision + proprioception Patient I.W. |
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Psychophysics
Absolute threshold |
Psychophysics: Connection between physical stimulus energy and perceived stimulus energy
e.g., how loud a sound really is vs. how loud it sounds Absolute Threshold: The weakest stimulus you can detect… But its not always constant Seeing a dim star at night Hearing a faint sound late at night Why? Adaptation: sensory receptors get tired Habituation: you get used to it Vigilance: you’re trying hard to notice it |
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Psychophysics
Difference threshold |
Psychophysics: Connection between physical stimulus energy and perceived stimulus energy
e.g., how loud a sound really is vs. how loud it sounds Difference threshold: Minimum amount of change to a stimulus before the change is noticed 50% of the time Just Noticeable Difference (jnd) Weber’s Law: amount of change required for a jnd is a constant proportion of initial amount |
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Psychophysics
Signal Detection Theory |
Psychophysics: Connection between physical stimulus energy and perceived stimulus energy
e.g., how loud a sound really is vs. how loud it sounds Signal Detection Theory: To account for variations in thresholds, or observer sensitivity to a stimulus Threshold varies because observers adopt a decision criterion that determines if they say “yes” or “no” on a given trial. |
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Vision
Anatomy of eye |
Cornea - Outer 'lens', oblong shaped directly on top of pupil/iris.
Pupil - Dark part of eye, allows light into the eye, dilates. Lens - Behind the pupil, stretches/contracts to focus light from near/far source. Retina - Back of the eye, contains Photoreceptors (Rods & cones) & Optic nerve to the brain |
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Vision
Photoreceptor function |
Photoreceptors:
Cells sensitive to light Contain a chemical called rhodopsin Breaks down when exposed to light Triggers an electrochemical reaction Photoreceptors have an axon that connects to neurons When rhodopsin breakdown occurs, signal is sent to the neurons Complex network of connections from eye to brain Transduction: conversion of light energy into neural energy In the retina |
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Vision
Color vision and trichromaticity |
3 types of cones (Trichromaticity Theory)
Sensitive to light of particular wavelengths (RGB) Any color we can see is a combination of these 3 primary colors Combined activity of the 3 types of cones |
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Hearing
Anatomy of ear |
Outer, Middle, Innter Ear
Auditory canal - Outer -> Middle Eardrum, 3 bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) - Change sound waves into mechanical pulses. (Middle ear) Oval windows, cochlea, Auditory nerve (Inner Ear) - Convert mechanical pulses into signals processed by the brain. |
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Perceiving pitch and loudness
Frequency and amplitude of sound waves |
Sound waves in air
Frequency perceived pitch Amplitude perceived loudness |
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Frequency Theory
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•Frequency theory
–Freq of sound determines freq of neural firing in auditory nerve determines perceived pitch –Problem: limited to 1000Hz, but we can hear freqsup to 20,000Hz |
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Place theory
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•Place theory
–Freq of sound determines location along basilar membrane that vibrates strongest, determines which hair cells activated, determines which cells in auditory nerve fire, determines perceived pitch |
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Localizing sound
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Sound to the left or right?
Inter-aural time difference and intensity difference (sound shadow) - Sound reaches closer ear sooner than farther ear; the brain can differentiate. - Sound 'sounds' different to the farther ear than to the nearer ear (shadow) |
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Chemical senses
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Taste and smell
Taste: Transduction for taste: chemicals in food activate taste buds in tongue Olfaction (smell): Chemicals inhaled in air (and also present in mouth) activate special receptors in olfactory epithelium, part of olfactory bulb in the forebrain |
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Taste map
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Main theory: taste map = regions of tongue selectively responsive to 4 (or more) basic tastes = all flavors are some combination of these basic tastes
- THIS IS A MYTH - All tastes can be detected by any part of the tongue. |
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Touch
Active vs. Passive touch |
Passive touch
–Receptors embedded in skin respond to pressure –Encode information about roughness, vibration, pain, hot and cold Active touch –Moving the hand (and whole body) to touch and explore objects –Perception of own body movement and of properties of the touched objects |
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Touch
Body senses: proprioception, kinesthesis, vestibular, haptic system. |
Proprioception(passive touch receptors + receptors embedded in muscles, tendons and joints): perception of body posture and orientation
•Kinesthesis: perception of body movement •Vestibular system (semicircular canals in inner ear): perception of body orientation and balance relative to gravity •Haptics: perception of object properties via active touch |
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Perception
Empiricist philosophy: |
perception relies on sensations
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Problem of constancy: sensations are variable
Size constancy: brain takes distance into account Depth cues |
Object in the world remains constant
Sensations continuously change Perception remains constant Account for distance Must perceive distance….the 3D world Problem: retina is 2D Solution: depth cues Monocular: one eye is sufficient Binocular: two eyes are necessary |
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Perceptual processing
Hubel & Weisel’s feature detectors |
Feature detectors
Hubel & Weisel’s discovery of “simple cells” and “complex cells” Cats raised in environment with only vertical lines –later cannot see horizontal lines (horizontal simple cells failed to develop) |
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Perceptual processing
Top-down vs. Bottom-up processing |
2 theorized types of “processing”
Top-down Compare sensations to stored mental representations of things Find a match = recognition Bottom-up Extract a pattern from the sensations without mental representations |
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Perceptual processing
Gestalt Laws of Organization |
Organizing Principles:
Proximity (Grouping close objects) Good continuation (finding linear patterns in random shapes) Similarity (Grouping similar objects) Closure (Recognizing blocked or incomplete objects as their whole selves) |
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Learning
Empiricist philosophy: blank slate, everything is learned |
Empiricist Philosophy
•Locke’s Blank slate = all knowledge from experience –Learning = accrual of knowledge/ideas –Learning = enduring change in behavior |
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Learning
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Operational definition
–An objective way of observing and measuring a psychological entity –Learning vs. Performance |
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Learning
Pavlov and classical conditioning |
Discoverer of “conditioned reflex”
–A reflex modified by experience •Meat is an unconditioned stimulus •Salivation to meat is an unconditioned response (aka instinctual reflex) •Bell is a neutral stimulus –Pair neutral stimulus with unconditioned stimulus repeatedly –Salivation then occurs after the bell •Bell becomes a conditioned stimulus •Salivation to bell is a conditioned response |
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Behaviorism
John Watson and “Little Albert” |
- Believed all behavior was some sort of modified or conditioned reflex
- Demonstration of Classical conditioning in human infant •When presenting rat to Albert, bang a pipe with a hammer (loud noise) –Albert cries •Repeat 6 times, now Albert cries when the rat is presented –Rat was a neutral stimulus, now is a conditioned stimulus –Fear of rat is a conditioned response |
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Behaviorism
Garcia Effect and Learning predispositions |
Conditioned Taste Aversion
•The Garcia effect •Rat has 2 water spouts: Sweet vs. Plain –Drink plain: injected with saline solution (Control Group) –Drink sweet: injected with nausea inducing solution (Experimental Group) •Rat quickly learns to avoid the sweet water Learning Predisposition •Conditioned taste aversion does not occur with other stimuli •Exp 2: Plain spout vs. Bright/Noisy spout –Drink plain: injected with saline solution –Drink bright/noisy: injected with nausea-causing drug •Rats do not learn to avoid bright/noisy waterActive |
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Behaviorism
Thorndike’s Law of Effect |
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
–Action followed by satisfying outcome will be repeated –Action followed by annoying outcome will not be repeated |
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Behaviorism
Skinner’s Operant conditioning |
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
•Action followed by a reinforcer is more likely to be repeated –A reinforcer is defined as any outcome that increases rate of responding •Action followed by a punisher is less likely to be repeated –A punisher is any outcome that decreases the rate of responding |
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Gestaltism
Insight learning |
Problem solving.
Chimpanzees given random objects and a banana high out of reach- they will find a way to get the banana. |
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Cognitivism
Bandura and Social learning, imitation |
Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory
–Social Learning •Observational Learning, Imitation Learning, Modeling -Bobo Doll study |
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Memory
3-stage model |
Modal model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)
[Incoming Sensory Info.] => [Sensory Memory]>[Short-Term Memory]>[Long-Term Memory] Info is recalled into short term memory from long term memory. |
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Sensory memory – capacity and duration
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•Temporary holding bin for incoming sensations
Sensory memory has large capacity but short duration. |
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Short-term memory – capacity and duration
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Uses rehearsal to maintain information
–Encodes and stores info into long-term memory •Without rehearsal, memory trace disappears "Magic number 7 +/- 2" Additional information "pushes" older information out. Time decay is not as big a factor as this. |
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Probe-digit procedure
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A list of numbers is read off, followed by a tone after the last.
The last number only occurs one other time in the list. This is the probe. The subject is asked to recall the digit following the probe. Tests decay & displacement. Found that at different speeds of information presented, the difference is not large. When more information is presented, the rate of recall drops off sharply. Conclusion: displacement plays a greater role than decay in STM. |
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Serial position effect
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The position of a word read out of a list of words will affect the rate at which it is recalled.
First few words: Higher rate of recall "primacy effect" Last few words: High(est) rate of recall "recency effect" |
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Working memory and Baddeley’s model
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Working memory
–Handles different types of information in different “storage buffers” -Information comes through visual, episodic, or language. -Stored in buffers for each category. -Controlled by "central executive" center. |
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Long-term memory – capacity and duration
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•Unlimited capacity and duration
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LTM
Encoding and “levels of processing” |
Encoding and storing information
–Rehearsal –Levels of processing Semantic vs. Non-Semantic Task Semantic: -Associate a word with an idea, feeling, sentence, or situation. -Much higher chance of remembering this word if asked to recall it. Non-Semantic: -Associate with a random aspect of the word- Middle letter, or rhyme the word with another. -Lower chance of recalling these words. |
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LTM
Imagery |
"Cognitive Maps"
If shown a map of objects and relative distances and asked to "mentally travel" between any of them, subject will wait times proportional to the distance on the map. If no map is presented, times will not vary. |
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LTM
Explicit vs. Implicit memory |
Explicit-Implicit Distinction in LTM
•Explicit –Intention to remember –Revealed by conscious recollection •Implicit –No intention to remember –Revealed by change in task performance |
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Forgetting
Retrograde and anterograde amnesia |
•Retrograde amnesia = inability to recall past events from LTM (usu. events prior to trauma)
•Anterograde amnesia = inability to form new LTMs (events prior to trauma can still be recalled) |
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Forgetting
Priming studies |
Priming
•Show P’s a list of words –Cannot recall (explicitly) due to amnesia •Later have P’s perform stem-completion or fragment-completion task –Fill in blanks to make a word: e l e__ __ __ __ __ __ o __ u s __ Non-conscious priming •With amnesic and normal controls •Words flashed quickly, followed by mask –Cannot consciously recall the words •Performance in completion task is better when word was primed compared to not |
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Forgetting (LTM)
Decay hypothesis |
Decay
•Weakening or loss of memory trace over time –Trace becomes lost forever? •Problems: –Forgetting is occasional, temporary –Given appropriate cue, memory can be recovered –Jenkins & Dallenbach (1924) experiment •8 hour retention interval –Sleep or normal daily activity –More retention when sleeping |
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Forgetting (LTM)
Interference hypothesis |
Interference
•Competition among similar memories –Common association to a 3rd memory –Recall of that 3rd memory triggers recall of the wrong item •Activation too strong to overcome: blocking •Retroactive interference –The blocking memory was encoded after the to-be-remembered item •Proactive interference –The blocking memory was encoded before the to-be-remembered item |
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Forgetting (LTM)
Interference hypothesis Examples Retroactive & Proactive |
Examples
•Retroactive •What did you have for dinner 3 nights ago? –Last night’s dinner is remembered –Hard to ignore that memory and think back to 3 nights ago •Proactive •Learn ideal time for making popcorn in your microwave –Get a new microwave, and learn new ideal time –Every time you make popcorn you have a lot of trouble remembering the new time |
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False memory
Deese lists |
Study List:
pin sew thread cloth injection serum haystack Task:Recall words that were presented Results:Subjects recall those words + “needle” Explanation:Words all activate the mental representation for “needle” so strongly that Subjects think it was presented |
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False memory
Imagination inflation |
•Exp 1:
–E: “have you ever been chased by a bear?” –S: “no” –E: “imagine being chased by a bear.” •Exp 2 (2 weeks later): –E: “have you ever been chased by a bear?” S: “yes” |
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False memory
Eyewitness reliability |
Eyewitness memory
•Intervening events •Wording of questions –S’s see video of car accident –“How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?” –“How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” –When “smashed” is used, S’s more report faster speeds, report seeing broken glass (none present) *When trying to recognize a face, very very difficult after time has passed. |
