Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
97 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
What is learning?
|
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
|
|
|
In reference to learning what does it not include?
|
"Does not include both temporary changes and more permanent changes caused by motivation, fatigue, maturation, disease, injury, or drugs. Each of these can alter behavior, but none qualifies as learning."
|
|
|
What are the types of learning.
|
"There are two types of learning, Associative learning, and Cognitive learning."
|
|
|
What is Cognitive Learning.
|
"Cognitive learning, which refers to understanding, knowing, anticipating, or otherwise making use of information-rich higher mental processes."
|
|
|
What is Associative learning?
|
Associative learning occurs whenever a person or an animal forms a simple association among various stimuli and/or responses.
|
|
|
What are the types of associative learning.
|
"There are two types of Associative Learning, Classical Conditioning, and Operant Conditioning. "
|
|
|
What is the key to Associative learning?
|
"Reinforcement is the key to Associative Learning. For example To teach a dog a trick, we could reinforce correct responses by giving the dog some food each time it sits up. Similarly, you could teach a child to be neat by praising him for picking up his toys."
|
|
|
What is reinforcement.
|
"Reinforcement refers to any event that increases the probability that a response will occur again. (A response is any identifiable behavior. Responses may be observable actions, such as blinking, eating a piece of candy, or turning a doorknob. They can also be internal, such as having a faster heartbeat)."
|
|
|
Associative learning begins with what
|
Associative Learning begins with noting what happens before and after a response.
|
|
|
What are antecedents and consequences.
|
"Events that precede a response are antecedents.
|
|
|
How does Classical conditioning work.
|
"It works when an antecedent stimulus that doesn’t produce a response is linked with one that does (a horn is associated with a puff of air to the eye, for example)."
|
|
|
In classical conditioning when can we say learning has occured.
|
We can say that learning has occurred when the new stimulus will also elicit (bring forth) responses
|
|
|
"What is the US, UR, NS, CS, CR?"
|
|
|
|
When is classical conditioning reinforced.
|
"Classical conditioning is reinforced when the CS is followed by, or paired with, an unconditioned stimulus. This process is called respondent reinforcement because the US brings forth a response, which becomes associated with the CS."
|
|
|
In classical conditioning when a response is learned it can bring about what type of conditioning.
|
"It can bring about Higher Order Conditioning. (In this case, a well-learned CS is used to reinforce further learning. That is, the CS has become strong enough to be used like an unconditioned stimulus.)
|
|
|
Who discoverd classical conditioning.
|
"Ian Pavlov with his dog, secrete, bell, meat powder experiment."
|
|
|
Does classical conditioning involve any higher mental processes.
|
"Pavlov believed that it did not involve higher mental processes. Today, many psychologists think that classical conditioning does have mental origins because it is related to information that might aid survival. According to this informational view, we look for associations among events. Doing so creates new mental expectancies, or thoughts about how events are interconnected."
|
|
|
Why does classical conditioning alter expectancies.
|
"Classical Conditioning alters expectancies because the conditioned stimulus reliably precedes the unconditioned stimulus. Because it does, the CS predicts the US. During conditioning, the brain learns to expect that the US will follow the CS. As a result, the brain prepares the body to respond to the US. Here’s an example: When you are about to get a shot with a hypodermic needle, your muscles tighten and there is a catch in your breathing. Why? Because your body is preparing for pain. You have learned to expect that getting poked with a needle will hurt. This expectancy, which was acquired during classical conditioning, changes your behavior."
|
|
|
Once an association has been classically conditioned will it ever go away?
|
"If the US never again follows the CS, conditioning will extinguish, or fade away."
|
|
|
What is extinction?
|
Extinction The weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement.
|
|
|
Does extinction automatically fade the conditioning.
|
"No, it may take several extinction sessions to completely reverse conditioning. Let’s say that we ring the bell until Johnny quits responding. It might seem that extinction is complete. However, Johnny will probably respond to the bell again on the following day, at least at first. "
|
|
|
What is spontaneous recovery.
|
The return of a learned response after apparent extinction.
|
|
|
"After conditioning, other stimuli similar to the CS may also trigger a response. This is called?"
|
"Stimulus generalization. For example, we might find that Johnny salivates to the sound of a ringing telephone or doorbell, even though they were never used as conditioning stimuli."
|
|
|
The ability to respond differently to various stimuli is called.
|
"Stimulus discrimination. For example, you might remember the feelings of anxiety or fear you had as a child when your mother’s or father’s voice changed to the dreaded give-me-that-Wii-controller tone. Most children quickly learn to discriminate voice tones associated with punishment from those associated with praise or affection."
|
|
|
What are emotional conditiong responses.
|
"More complex emotional, or “gut,” responses associated with new stimuli. For instance, if your face reddened when you were punished as a child, you may blush now when you are embarrassed or ashamed."
|
|
|
"Many involuntary, autonomic nervous system, responses (“fightor-flight” reflexes) are linked with new stimuli and situations by"
|
"Classical conditioning. For example, learned reactions worsen many cases of hypertension (high blood pressure). Traffic jams, arguments with a spouse, and similar situations can become conditioned stimuli that trigger a dangerous rise in blood pressure"
|
|
|
"What is a fear that persists even when no realistic danger exists. Fears of animals, water, heights, thunder, fire, bugs, elevators, and the like, are common."
|
A phobia
|
|
|
Some phobias are based on what.
|
"Some phobias are also based on emotional conditioning.
|
|
|
During Conditioned Emotional Response (CER) what area of the brain becomes more active.
|
"amygdala becomes more active and produces feelings of fear. The amygdala is part of the limbic system, which is responsible for other emotions, as well Cognitive learning has little effect on these lower brain area. Perhaps that’s why fears and phobias cannot be readily eased by merely reading about how to control fears. "
|
|
|
Conditioned fears do respond to what type of therapy.
|
"desensitization. This is done by gradually exposing the phobic person to feared stimuli while she or he remains calm and relaxed. For example, people who fear heights can be slowly taken to ever-higher elevations until their fears extinguish. This therapy even works when computer graphics are used to simulate the experience of heights
|
|
|
Can conditioning occur indirectly.
|
"Yes it can, Let’s say, for example, that you watch another person get an electric shock. Each time, a signal light comes on before the shock is delivered. Even if you don’t receive a shock yourself, you will soon develop a CER to the light."
|
|
|
What type of classical conditioning has occured when we learn to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing another persons emotional reaction.
|
"Vicarious classical conditioning occurs when we learn to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing another person’s emotional reactions. Such “secondhand” learning affects feelings in many situations. Being told that “snakes are dangerous” may not explain the child’s emotional response. More likely, the child has observed others reacting fearfully to the word snake or to snake images on television"
|
|
|
Operant conditioning is based on the consequences of.
|
"Operant conditioning, learning is based on the consequences of responding. A response may be followed by a reinforcer (such as food). Or by punishment. Or by nothing. These results determine whether a response is likely to be made again. For example, if you wear a particular hat and get lots of compliments (reinforcement), you are likely to wear it more often. If people snicker, insult you, call the police, or scream (punishment), you will probably wear it less often."
|
|
|
What is the law of effect
|
Pioneer learning theorist Edward L. Thorndike called this the law of effect: The probability of a response is altered by the effect it has.
|
|
|
Operant conditioning refers mainly to what type of responses.
|
"•
|
|
|
Any event that follows a response and increases its probability of occurring again is called.
|
Operant reinforcer
|
|
|
In operant conditioning we learn we learn to expect what.
|
"In operant conditioning, we learn to expect that a certain response will have a certain effect at certain times. That is, learn that a particular response is associated with reinforcement "
|
|
|
Operant reinforcement works best when it is.
|
"response contingent: it must be given only after a desired response has occurred. From this point of view, a reinforcer tells a person or an animal that a response was “right” and worth repeating. For example, one severely disturbed 9-year-old child was taught to say “Please,” “Thank you,” and “You’re welcome.” During the initial, baseline period, the child rarely used the word “please.” Typically, he just grabbed objects and became angry if he couldn’t have them. However, when he was consistently reinforced for saying “Please,” he soon learned to use the word nearly every time he wanted something. When the child said “Please” he was reinforced in three ways: He received the object he asked for (a crayon, for example); he was given a small food treat, such as a piece of candy, popcorn, or a grape; and he was praised for his good behavior"
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
What is response chaining.
|
"Response chaining The assembly of separate responses into a series of actions that lead to reinforcement. For example, preparing a meal, making coffee, anything that is a series of tasks that lead to reinforcement."
|
|
|
Why are superstitious behavior repeated.
|
"Superstitious behaviors are repeated because they appear to produce reinforcement, even though they are actually unnecessary."
|
|
|
What is shaping.
|
"Shaping Gradually molding responses to a final desired pattern. (Successive approximations are reinforced in shaping, like getting the pidgeons to play ping pong by getting them to do things little by little, like facing something, then poking it etc.)"
|
|
|
Operant Extinction is.
|
"Operant extinction The weakening or disappearance of a nonreinforced operant response. For example, if a TV program repeatedly bores you, watching the program will likely extinguish over time.
|
|
|
Primary reinforcers produce.
|
"Primary reinforcers produce comfort, end discomfort, or fill an immediate physical need: They are natural, nonlearned, and rooted in biology. Food, water, and sex are obvious examples.
|
|
|
o
|
In addition to obvious examples, there are other, less obvious, primary reinforcers, such as psychoactive drugs (cocaine, and alcohol)"
|
|
|
One of the most powerful reinforcers is intracranial self-stimulation (ICS). What does ICS do.
|
ICS involves the direct activation of “pleasure centers” in the brain.
|
|
|
Secondary reinforcers are
|
Secondary reinforcer A learned reinforcer; often one that gains reinforcing properties by association with a primary reinforcer.
|
|
|
A token reinforcer is
|
"Token reinforcer is a tangible secondary reinforcer, such as money, gold stars, poker chips, and the like."
|
|
|
What is the advantage of tokens.
|
"A major advantage of tokens is that they don’t lose reinforcing value as quickly as primary reinforcers do. For instance, if you use candy to reinforce a developmentally disabled child for correctly naming things, the child might lose interest once he is satiated (fully satisfied) or no longer hungry. It would be better to use tokens as immediate rewards for learning. Later, the child can exchange his tokens for candy, toys, or other treats."
|
|
|
"learned desires for attention and approval, which are called social reinforcers, often influence "
|
human behavior.
|
|
|
Feedback is
|
"(information about the effect a response had) is particularly important in human cognitive learning, The adaptive value of feedback helps explain why much human learning occurs in the absence of obvious reinforcers, such as food or water. Humans readily learn responses that merely have a desired effect or that bring a goal closer. "
|
|
|
When is feedback most effective.
|
"Feedback is most effective when it is frequent, immediate, and detailed."
|
|
|
Continuous reinforement means
|
that a reinforcer follows every correct response.
|
|
|
Partial reinforment means
|
reinforcers do not follow every response.
|
|
|
What is better continous reinforcement of partial reinforcement.
|
"At the start, continuous reinforcement is useful for learning new responses. For example To teach your dog to come to you, it is best to reinforce your dog every time it comes when called. Curiously, once your dog has learned to come when called, it is best to shift to partial reinforcement"
|
|
|
Responses acquires by partial reinforcement are highly resistant to.
|
Extinction.
|
|
|
What is the partial reinforcement effect.
|
"the partial reinforcement effect.
|
|
|
Fixed ratio schedule is
|
"a set number of correct responses must be made to obtain a reinforcer. Notice that in an FR schedule the ratio of reinforcers to responses is fixed: FR-2 means that every other response is rewarded; FR-3 means that every third response is reinforced; in an FR-10 schedule, exactly 10 responses must be made to obtain a reinforcer. "
|
|
|
Fixed Ratio schedule produce very high
|
response rates.
|
|
|
Variable ratio is
|
"a varied number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer. Instead of reinforcing every fourth response (FR-4), for example, a person or animal on a VR-4 schedule gets rewarded on the average every fourth response.( Variable ratio schedules also produce high response rates, and because reinforcement is less predictable it produces great resistant to extinction."
|
|
|
Which has a higher resistance to extinction FR or VR schedules.
|
"Variable ratio has a higher resistance to extinction, and after comes FR."
|
|
|
Fixed interval is
|
"the first correct response made after the time period has passed is reinforced. Thus, a rat on an FI-30-second schedule has to wait 30 seconds after the last reinforced response before a bar press will pay off again."
|
|
|
Variable interval is
|
"a variation on fixed intervals. Here, reinforcement is given for the first correct response made after a varied amount of time. On a VI-30-second schedule, reinforcement is available after an interval that averages 30 seconds. "
|
|
|
Variable interval produce slow and steady.
|
"VI schedules produce slow, steady response rates and tremendous resistance to extinction"
|
|
|
Stimuli that consistently precede a rewarded response tend to influence when and where the response will occur. This effect is called
|
"stimulus control. For example, While learning the bar-pressing response, Einstein has been in a Skinner box illuminated by a bright light. During several training sessions, the light is alternately turned on and off. When the light is on, a bar press will produce food. When the light is off, bar pressing goes unrewarded. We soon observe that the rat presses vigorously when the light is on and ignores the bar when the light is off."
|
|
|
Two important aspects of stimulus control are
|
generalization and discrimination.
|
|
|
What is generalization
|
"is the tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those that pre ceded operant reinforcement. That is, a reinforced response tends to be made again when similar antecedents are present. For example, assume that your dog has begun to jump up at you whenever you are eating dinner at the kitchen table (bad dog!). Mind you, that’s because you have been rewarding its behavior with table scraps (bad master!). Now your dog begins to jump any time you sit at the kitchen table. The dog has learned that reinforcement tends to occur when you are at the kitchen table. The dog’s behavior has come under stimulus control. Now let’s say that there are some other tables in your house. Because they are similar, your dog will likely jump up if you sit at any of them because the jumping response generalized to other tables.
|
|
|
What is discrimination
|
"The tendency to make an operant response when stimuli previously associated with reward are present and to withhold the response when stimuli associated with nonreward are present. For example, As stated earlier, to discriminate means to respond differently to varied stimuli. Because one table signaled the availability of reinforcement to your dog, it began jumping up while you sat at other tables as well (generalization). If you do not feed your dog while sitting at any other table, the jumping response that originally generalized to them will extinguish because of nonreinforcement. Thus, your dog’s jumping response is consistently rewarded in the presence of a specific table. The same response to different tables is extinguished. Through operant stimulus discrimination, your dog has learned to differentiate between antecedent stimuli that signal reward and nonreward. As a result, the dog’s response pattern will shift to match these discriminative stimuli (stimuli that precede reinforced and nonreinforced responses)."
|
|
|
Psychologists symbolize a stimulus that precedes reinforced responses as an____. Discriminative stimuli that precede unrewarded responses are symbolized as _____.
|
Psychologists symbolize a stimulus that precedes reinforced responses as an S+. Discriminative stimuli that precede unrewarded responses are symbolized as S-
|
|
|
Punishment lowers what
|
Punishment lowers the probability that a response will occur again.
|
|
|
"To be most effective, punishment must be given."
|
contingently (only after an undesired response occurs).
|
|
|
what is a punisher.
|
Punisher is any consequence that reduces the frequency of a target behavior.
|
|
|
Is it possible to give everyone the same punisher?
|
"((It is not always possible to know ahead of time what will act as a punisher for a particular person. For example, when Jason’s mother reprimanded him for throwing toys, he stopped doing it. In this instance, the reprimand was a punisher. However, Chris is starved for attention of any kind from his parents, who both work fulltime. For Chris, a reprimand, or even a spanking, might actually reinforce toy throwing. Remember, too, that a punisher can be either the onset of an unpleasant event or the removal of a positive state of affairs (response cost).))"
|
|
|
The effectiveness of punisher depends on?
|
"The effectiveness of punishers depends greatly on their timing, consistency, and intensity. Punishment works best when it occurs as the response is being made, or immediately afterward (timing), and when it is given each time a response occurs (consistency)."
|
|
|
Severe punishment can be.
|
Severe punishment (following a response with an intensely aversive or unpleasant stimulus) can be extremely effective in stopping behavior. If 3-year-old Beavis sticks his finger in a light socket and gets a shock that may be the last time he ever tries it.
|
|
|
What is the problem with mild punishment.
|
"Mild punishment only temporarily suppresses a response. If the response is still reinforced, punishment may be particularly ineffective"
|
|
|
What are the problems with punishment.
|
"There are several problems with punishment, all of which become more of a problem as punishment increases in severity. Basically, punishment is aversive (painful or uncomfortable). As a result, people and situations associated with punishment tend, through classical conditioning, to become feared, resented, or disliked, there are escape and avoidance and it increases aggression."
|
|
|
What is escape learning.
|
Escape learning Learning to make a response in order to end an aversive stimulus.
|
|
|
Avoidance learning is
|
Avoidance learning is Learning to make a response in order to postpone or prevent discomfort.
|
|
|
"Parents, teachers, animal trainers, and the like, have three basic tools to control simple learning"
|
"(1) Reinforcement strengthens responses; (2) nonreinforcement causes responses to extinguish; (3) punishment suppresses responses. Remember, it is much more effective to strengthen and encourage desirable behaviors than it is to punish unwanted behaviors."
|
|
|
Cognitive learning extends beyond basic conditioning into.
|
"Cognitive learning extends beyond basic conditioning
|
|
|
What is a cognitive map.
|
"Internal images or other mental representations of an area (maze, city, campus, and so forth) that underlie an ability to choose alternative paths to the same goal."
|
|
|
What is latent learning.
|
Latent learning Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and that remains unexpressed until reinforcement is provided.
|
|
|
What is rote learning.
|
"Rote learning, Learning that takes place mechanically, throughrepetition and memorization, or by learning rules."
|
|
|
What is discovery learning
|
Discovery learning Learning based on insight and understanding.
|
|
|
"Which type of learning is best latent, rote, or discovery."
|
Psychologist believe learning is more lasting and flexible by discovery learning than by rote learning.
|
|
|
What is observational learning.
|
"Observational learning Learning achieved by watching and imitating the actions of another or noting the consequences of those actions. (anything that can be learned from direct experience can be learned by observation. Often, this allows a person to skip the tedious trial-and-error stage of learning.)"
|
|
|
How does observational learning occur.
|
"It seems obvious that we learn by observation, but how does it occur? By observing a model (someone who serves as an example), a person may (1) learn new responses, (2) learn to carry out or avoid previously learned responses (depending on what happens to the model for doing the same thing), or (3) learn a general rule that can be applied to various situations."
|
|
|
"For observational learning to occur, several things must take place. "
|
"First, the learner must pay attention to the model and remember what was done. (A beginning auto mechanic might be interested enough to watch an entire tune-up, but unable to remember all the steps.) Next, the learner must be able to reproduce the modeled behavior. (Sometimes this is a matter of practice, but it may be that the learner will never be able to perform the behavior."
|
|
|
Typical tv viewers are exposed to a massive dose of media violece which promotes what.
|
"typical TV viewers are exposed to a massive dose of media violence, which tends to promote observational learning of aggression "
|
|
|
Does media violence make people more aggresive.
|
"Media violence can make aggression more likely, but it does not invariably “cause” it to occur for any given child"
|
|
|
How can you use operant conditioning to manage your own behavior.
|
"The principles of operant conditioning can be adapted to manage your own behavior
|
|
|
If you have trouble of thinking of rewards what can you do.
|
"If you have trouble thinking of rewards, remember that anything done often can serve as reinforcement. This is known as the Premack principle."
|
|
|
Can self recording make a difference.
|
"self-recording (keeping records of response frequencies, a form of feedback) can make a difference all by itself. This is because we tend to react to being observed, even when we are the ones watching our own behavior. In general, when you systematically (and honestly) observe yourself, you are more likely to engage in desired behaviors and less likely to perform undesired behaviors"
|
|
|
What are some additional techniques to break bad habits.
|
"1)Alternate responses (A good strategy for change is to try to get the same reinforcement with a new response.)
|
|
|
What is a behavioral contract.
|
"Behavioral contract, you state a specific problem behavior you want to control, or a goal you want to achieve. Also state the rewards you will receive, privileges you will forfeit, or punishments you must accept. The contract should be signed by you and a person you trust."
|
|
|
Do behabioral contracts really work
|
"A behavioral contract can be quite motivating,
|
