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193 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Neurons |
one of the major types of cells found in the nervous system, which are responsible for sending and receiving messages throughout the body |
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Cell body |
the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus that houses the cell’s genetic material |
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Dendrites |
small branches radiating from the cell body that receive messages from other cells and transmit those messages toward the rest of the cell
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Axon |
transports information in the form of electrochemical reactions from the cell body to the end of the neuron |
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Neurotransmitters |
the chemicals that function as messengers allowing neurons to communicate with each other
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Glial cells
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specialized cell of the nervous system that are involved in mounting immune responses in the brain, removing waste, and synchronizing the activity of the billions of neurons that constitute the nervous system
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Myelin |
a fatty sheath that insulates axons from one another, resulting in increased speed and efficiency of neural communication
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Resting potential
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relatively stable state during which the cell is not transmitting messages |
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Action potential |
a wave of electrical activity that originates at the base of the axon and rapidly travels down its length
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Refractory period
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(1) brief period in which a neuron cannot fire (2) a time period during which erection and orgasm are not physically possible |
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Synapses
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the microscopically small spaces that separate individual nerve cells
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All-or-none principle |
individual nerve cell fire at the same strength every time an action potential occurs
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Synaptic cleft
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the minute space between the axon terminal (terminal button) and the dendrite
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Reuptake
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a process whereby neurotransmitter molecules that have been releases into the synapse are reabsorbed into the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron |
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Glutamate |
most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brains of the vertebrates
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GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid)
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the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter of the nervous system, meaning that it prevents neurons from generating action potentials
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Acetylcholine
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one of the most widespread neurotransmitters within the body, found at the junctions between nerve cells and skeletal muscles; it is very important for voluntary movement
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Dopamine
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a monoamine neurotransmitter involved in such varied functions as mood, control of voluntary movements, and processing of rewarding experiences
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Norepinephrine
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(also known as noradrenaline) a monoamine synthesized from dopamine molecules that is involved in regulating stress responses, including increasing arousal, attention, and heart rate
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Serotonin
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a monoamine involved in regulating mood, sleep, aggression and appetite
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Substance P
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a neurotransmitter involved in the experience of pain
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Agonists
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drugs that enhance or mimic the effects of a neurotransmitter’s action
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Antagonists
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inhibit neurotransmitter activity by blocking receptors or preventing synthesis of a neurotransmitter
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Hormones
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chemicals secreted by the glands of the endocrine system
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Hypothalamus
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a brain structure that regulates basic biological needs and motivational systems
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Pituitary gland
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the master gland of the endocrine system that produces hormones and sends commands about hormone production to the other glands of the endocrine system
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Adrenal glands
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a pair of endocrine glands located adjacent to the kidneys that release stress hormones, such as cortisol and epinephrine
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Endorphin |
a hormone produced by the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus that functions to reduce pain and induce feelings of pleasure
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Central nervous system (CNS)
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consists of the brain and the spinal cord
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Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
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a division of the nervous system that transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body and is divided into two subcomponents, the somatic system and the autonomic system
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Somatic nervous system |
consists of nerves that control skeletal muscles, which are responsible for voluntary and reflexive movement; it also consists of nerves that receive sensory input from the body
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Autonomic nervous system
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the portion of the peripheral nervous system responsible for regulating the activity of organs and glands |
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Sympathetic nervous system
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responsible for the fight-or-flight response of an increased heart rate, dilated pupils, and decreased salivary flow – responses that prepare body for action
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Parasympathetic nervous system
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helps maintain homeostatic balance in the presence of change; following sympathetic arousal, it works to return the body to a baseline, nonemergency state |
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Brain stem
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the “stem” or bottom of the brain and consists of two structures: the medulla and the pons
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Cerebellum
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(Latin for ‘little brain’) the lobe-like structure at the base of the brain that is involved in the monitoring of movement, maintaining balance, attention, and emotional responses
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Midbrain
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resides just above the hindbrain, primarily functions as a relay station between sensory and motor areas
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Forebrain
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the most visibly obvious region of the brain, consists of all the neural structures that are located above the midbrain, including all of the folds and grooves on the outer surface of the brain; the multiple interconnected structures in the forebrain are critical to such complex processes as emotion, memory, thinking, and reasoning
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Basal ganglia
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a group of three structures that are involved in facilitating planned movements, skill learning, and integrating sensory and movement information with the brain’s reward system
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Limbic system
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an integrated network involved in emotion and memory
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Amygdala
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a group of nuclei in the medial portion (near the middle) of the temporal lobes in each hemisphere of the brain that facilitates memory formation for emotional events, mediates fear responses, and appears to play a role in recognizing and interpreting emotional stimuli, including facial expressions
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Hippocampus
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critical for learning and memory, particularly the formation of new memories
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Thalamus
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a set of nuclei involved in relaying sensory information to different regions of the brain
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Cerebral cortex
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the convoluted, wrinkled outer layer of the brain that is involved in multiple higher functions, such as thought, language, and personality
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Occipital lobes
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located at the rear of the brain and are where visual information is processed
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Parietal lobes
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involved in our experiences of touch as well our bodily awareness
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Temporal lobes |
located at the sides of the brain near the ears and are involved in hearing, language, and some higher-level aspects of vision such as object and face recognition
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Frontal lobes
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important in numerous higher cognitive functions, such as planning, regulating impulses and emotion, language production, and voluntary movement
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Corpus callosum
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a collection of neural fibers connecting the two hemispheres
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Neuroplasticity
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the capacity of the brain to change and rewire itself based on individual experience
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Learning
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a process by which behaviour or knowledge changes as a result of experience
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Classical conditioning
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learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus elicits a response that was originally caused by another stimulus
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Unconditioned stimulus (US)
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a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response without learning
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Unconditioned response (UR)
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a reflexive, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus |
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Conditioned stimulus (CS)
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a once-neutral stimulus that later elicits a conditioned response because it has a history of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus |
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Conditioned response (CR)
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the learned response that occurs to the conditioned stimulus |
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Acquisition
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the initial phase of learning in which a response is established |
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Extinction |
(1) in classical conditioning, the loss or weakening of a conditioned response when a conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus no longer occur together (2) in operant conditioning, the weakening of an operant response when reinforcement is no longer available |
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Spontaneous recovery
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the reoccurrence of a previously extinguished conditioned response, typically after some time has passed since extinction |
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Generalization
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a process in which a response that originally occurs to a specific stimulus also occurs to different, though similar, stimuli |
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Discrimination |
(1) occurs when an organism learns to respond to one original stimulus but not to new stimuli that may be similar to the original stimulus (2) behaviour that disfavours or disadvantages members of a certain social group in some way |
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Conditioned emotional responses |
consist of emotional and physiological responses that develop to a specific object or situation |
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Preparedness
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the biological predisposition to rapidly learn a response to a particular class of stimuli |
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Conditioned taste aversion
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acquired dislike or disgust of a food or drink because it was paired with illness |
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Operant conditioning
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a type of learning in which behaviour is influenced by consequences
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Reinforcement
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a process in which an event or reward that follow a response increases the likelihood of that response occurring again |
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Reinforcer
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a stimulus that in contingent upon a response, and that increases the probability of that response occurring again
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Punishment
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a process that decreases the future probability of a response
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Punisher
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a stimulus that is contingent upon a response, and that results in a decrease in behaviour
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Positive reinforcement
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the strengthening of a behaviour after potential reinforcers such as praise, money, or nourishment follow that behaviour |
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Negative reinforcement
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involves the strengthening of a behaviour because it removes or diminishes a stimulus
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Avoidance learning
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a specific type of negative reinforcement that removes the possibility that a stimulus will occur
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Escape learning
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occurs if a response removes a stimulus that is already present
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Positive punishment
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a process in which a behaviour decreases in frequency because it was followed by a particular, usually unpleasant, stimulus
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Negative punishment
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occurs when a behaviour decreases because it removes or diminishes a particular stimulus
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Primary reinforcers
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reinforcing stimuli that satisfy basic motivational needs – needs that affect an individual’s ability to survive (and, if possible, reproduce) |
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Secondary reinforcers
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stimuli that acquire their reinforcing effects only after we learn that they have value
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Discriminative stimulus |
a cue or event that indicates that a response, if made, will be reinforced
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Extinction
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(1) in classical conditioning, the loss or weakening of a conditioned response when a conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus no longer occur together (2) in operant conditioning, the weakening of an operant response when reinforcement is no longer available |
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Shaping
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a procedure in which a specific operant response is created by reinforcing successive approximations of that response
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Schedules of reinforcement
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rules that determine when reinforcement is available
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Continuous reinforcement
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every response made results in reinforcement |
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Partial (intermittent) reinforcement |
only a certain number of responses are rewarded, or a certain amount of time must pass before reinforcement is available |
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Fixed-ratio schedule
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reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been completed |
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Variable-ratio schedule
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the number of responses required to receive reinforcement varies according to an average |
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Fixed-interval schedule
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reinforces the first response occurring after a set amount of time passes
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Variable-interval schedule
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the first response is reinforced following a variable amount of time
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Partial reinforcement effect
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a phenomenon in which organisms that have been conditioned under partial reinforcement resist extinction longer than those conditioned under continuous reinforcement |
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Latent learning
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learning that is not immediately expressed by a response until the organism is reinforced for doing so
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Observational learning
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involves changes in behaviour and knowledge that result from watching others
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Imitation
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recreating someone else’s motor behaviour or expression, often to accomplish a specific goal
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Stores |
retain info in memory without using it for any specific purpose
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Control processes
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shift information from one memory store to another
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Attention
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selects which information will be passed on to STM
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Encoding
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the process of storing information in the LTM system
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Retrieval
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bring information from long-term memory back into short-term memory
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Sensory memory
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a memory store that accurately holds perceptual information for a very brief amount of time
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Short-term memory (STM)
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memory store with limited capacity and duration
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Chunking
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organizing smaller units of info into large, more meaningful units |
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Long-term memory (LTM)
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hold info for extended period of time, if not permanently
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Serial position effect
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in general, most people will recall the first few items from a list and the last few items, but only an item or two from the middle
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Proactive interference
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a process in which the first information learned occupied memory, leaving fewer resources left to remember the newer information
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Retroactive interference
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the most recently learned information overshadows some older memories that have not yet made it into long-term memory
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Rehearsal
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repeating information until you do not need to remember it anymore
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Working memory
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a model of short-term remembering that includes a combination of memory components that can temporarily store small amounts of information for a short period of time
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Phonological loop
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storage component of working memory that relies on rehearsal and that stores information as sound, or an auditory code
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Visuospatial sketchpad
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a storage components of working memory that maintains visual images and spatial layouts in visuospatial code
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Episodic buffer
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a storage component of working memory that combines images and sounds from the other two components into coherent, story-like episodes |
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Central executive
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control centre of working memory; coordinates attention and exchange of information among 3 storage components
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Declarative memories (explicit memories)
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memories that we are consciously aware of and that can be verbalized, including facts about the world and one’s own personal experiences
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Nondeclarative memories (implicit memories)
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include actions or behaviours that you can remember and perform without awareness |
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Episodic memories
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declarative memories for personal experiences that seem to be organized around “episodes” and are recalled from a first person (“I” or “my”) perspective |
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Semantic memories
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declarative memories that include facts about the world |
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Procedural memories
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patterns of muscle movements (motor memory) |
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Long-term potentiation (LTP)
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showed that there is an enduring increase in connectivity and transmission of neural signals between nerve cells that fire together
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Consolidation
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the process of converting short-term memories into long-term memories in the brain |
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Amnesia
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a profound loss of at least one form of memory
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Anterograde amnesia
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the inability to form new memories for events occurring after a brain injury
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Retrograde amnesia
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a condition in which memory for the events preceding trauma or injury is lost
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Anthropometrics
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(literally, “the measurement of people”) methods of measuring physical and mental variation in humans
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Intelligence
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the ability to think, understand, reason, and adapt or overcome obstacles |
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Mental age
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the average intellectual ability score for children of a specific age
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Stanford-Binet test |
a test intended to measure innate levels of intelligence
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Intelligence quotient (IQ) |
a measure of intelligence computed using a standardized test and calculated by taking a person’s mental age, dividing it by his/her chronological age, and then multiplying by 100 |
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Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
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IQ test for adult population
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Raven’s Progressive Matrices
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an intelligence test that is based on pictures, not words, thus making it relatively unaffected by language or cultural background
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Stereotype threat
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occurs when negative stereotypes about a group, cause a group members to underperform on ability tests
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Entity theory
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the belief that intelligence is a fixed characteristic and relatively difficult (or impossible) to change
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Incremental theory
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the belief that intelligence can be shaped by experiences, practice, and effort
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Cognitive development
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the study of the changes in memory, thought, and reasoning processes that occur throughout the lifespan
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Assimilation
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a conservative process, whereby people fit new information into the belief systems they already possess
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Accommodation
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a creative process whereby people modify their belief structures based on experience
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Sensorimotor stage
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from birth to two years, a time during which infants’ thinking about and exploration of the world are based on immediate sensory (e.g. seeing, feeling) and motor (e.g. grabbing) experiences
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Object permanence
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the ability to understand that objects exist even when they cannot be directly perceived
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Preoperational stage
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(ages two to seven) language development, using symbols, pretend play, and mastering the concept of conservation
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Conservation
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the knowledge that the quantity or amount of an object is not the same as the physical arrangement and appearance of that object |
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Concrete operational stage
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(ages 7 to 11 years) children develop skills in logical thinking and manipulating numbers
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Formal operational stage
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(ages 11 to adulthood) the development of advanced cognitive processes such as abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking
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Core knowledge hypothesis
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infants have inborn abilities for understanding some key aspects of their environment |
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Habituation
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a decrease in responding with repeated exposure to a stimulus or event
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Dishabituation
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the recovery of responsiveness to a habituated stimulus as the result of the presentation of new stimulus |
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Zone of proximal development
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the set of new skills that an individual is ready to attain based on his or her current skill set
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Scaffolding
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a highly attentive approach to teaching in which the teacher matches guidance to the learner’s needs |
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Attachment
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the enduring emotional bond formed between individuals
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Strange situation
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a way of measuring infant attachment by observing how infants behave when exposed to different experiences that involve anxiety and comfort
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Self-awareness |
the ability to recognize one’s individuality
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Egocentric
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seeing the world only from one’s own perspective
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Theory of mind |
the ability to recognize the thoughts, beliefs, and expectations of others, and to understand that these can be different from one’s own
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Attachment behavioural system |
focused on meeting your own needs for security
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Caregiving behavioural system
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focused on meeting the needs of others
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Introjections
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the internalization of the conditional regard of significant others |
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Inductive discipline
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involves explaining the consequences of a child’s actions on other people, activating empathy for other’s feelings
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Primary sex traits
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changes in the body that are part of reproduction
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Secondary sex traits
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changes in the body that are not part of reproduction
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Menarche
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the onset of menstruation
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Spermarche
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during puberty, a male’s first ejaculation of sperm |
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Delaying gratification
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putting off immediate temptations in order to focus on longer-term goals
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Preconventional morality
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characterized by self-interest in seeking reward or avoiding punishment |
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Conventional morality
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regards social conventions and rules as guides for appropriate moral behaviour |
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Postconventional morality
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considers rules and laws as relative
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Identity
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a clear sense of what kind of person you are, what types of people you belong with, and what roles you should play in society |
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Menopause
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the termination of the menstrual cycle and reproductive ability in women |
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Dementia
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mild to severe disruption of mental functioning, memory loss, disorientation, poor judgement, and decision making
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Alzheimer’s disease
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a degenerative and terminal condition resulting in severe damage of the entire brain |
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Generativity
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being engaged in meaningful and productive work, as well as making contributions to future generations
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Libido
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the motivation for sexual activity and pleasure
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Sexual response cycle
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the phases of physiological change during sexual activity which comprises four primary stages: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution |
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Refractory period
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(1) brief period in which a neuron cannot fire (2) a time period during which erection and orgasm are not physically possible |
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Sexual orientation
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the consistent preference for sexual relations with members of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), same sex (homosexuality), or either sex (bisexuality) |
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Gender roles |
the accepted attitudes and behaviours of males and females in a given society
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Sexual scripts |
the set of rules and assumptions about the sexual behaviours of males and females
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Testosterone
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a hormone that is involved in the development of sex characteristics and the motivation of sexual behaviour
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Sex guilt
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negative emotional feelings for having violated culturally accepted standards of appropriate sexual behaviour
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Need to belong
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the motivation to maintain relationships that involve pleasant feelings such as warmth, affection, appreciation, and mutual concern for each person’s well being
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Passionate love
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associated with a physical and emotional longing for other person
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Companionate love
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related to tenderness, and to the affection we feel when our lives are intertwined with another person
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Achievement motivation |
the drive to perform at high levels and to accomplish significant goals
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Approach goal
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an enjoyable and pleasant incentive that a person is drawn towards, such as praise, financial reward, or a feeling of satisfaction |
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Avoidance goal
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an attempt to avoid an unpleasant outcome such as shame, embarrassment, losing money, or feeling emotional pain |
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Self-efficacy
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an individual’s confidence that he or she can plan and execute a course of action in order to solve a problem
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Self-determination theory
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an individual’s ability to achieve their goals and attain psychological well-being is influenced by the degree to which he or she is in control of the behaviours necessary to achieve those goals
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Extrinsic motivation (performance motive)
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motivation geared toward gaining rewards or public recognition, or avoiding embarrassment
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Amotivation
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a feeling of having little or no motivation to perform a behaviour
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Intrinsic motivation (mastery motive)
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the process of being internally motivated to perform behaviour and overcoming challenges (e.g. a genuine desire to master a task rather than being motivated by a reward)
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Framing effect
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states that when the correct course of action is not obvious, the different phrasing of the question or problem can produce different results
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Emotion
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a behaviour with the following three components: (a) a subjective thought and/or experience with (b) accompanying patterns of neural activity and physical arousal and (c) an observable behavioural expression (e.g. an emotional facial expression or changes in muscle tension)
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Amygdala
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a group of nuclei in the medial portion (near the middle) of the temporal lobes in each hemisphere of the brain that facilitates memory formation for emotional events, mediates fear responses, and appears to play a role in recognizing and interpreting emotional stimuli, including facial expressions
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James-Lange theory of emotion
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our physiological reactions to stimuli (e.g. a racing heart) precede the emotional experience (e.g. the fear)
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Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
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the brain interprets a situation and generates subjective emotional feelings, and that these representations in the brain trigger responses in the body
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Facial feedback hypothesis
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our emotional expressions can influence our subjective emotional states
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Two factor theory
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patterns of physical arousal and the cognitive labels we attach to them form the basis of our emotional experiences |
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Emotional dialects |
variations across cultures in how common emotions are expressed
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Display rules |
the unwritten expectations we have regarding when it is appropriate to show a certain emotion |
