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178 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Interneuron
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CNS neurons that internally communicate between sensory and motor neurons
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Dendrite
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-bushy extension receive messages for cell
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Axon
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-extension of neuron, ends in terminal fibers; pass messages to other cells
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f. Nodes of Ranvier
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- very small spaces between sections of myelin sheath(breaks)
i. Allows for K, Na reactions to go much faster because it skips a section |
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h. Terminal buttons-
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store neurotransmitters until there needed for other neurons
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i. Synapse-
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junction between axon tip of sending neuron and dendrite or soma
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i. Synaptic cleft
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- gap between terminal buttons and receiving cells
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j. Neurotransmitters-
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chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic cleft and attach to the receiving neuron, exciting or inhibiting that neuron as appropriate
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i. Agonist-
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chemicals which excite neurons and lead to increased action potentia
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ii. Antagonist-
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chemicals which inhibit neurons and lead to decreased action potential activity
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i. Action potential-
2. Threshold - |
neural impulse; charge travels down axon
1. All activities can be traced back to these 55 microvolts* |
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4. Axon hillock-
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all charges coming into soma are added up
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6. Excitatory signal-
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raises voltage makes action potential more likely
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7. Inhibitory signal
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-lowers voltage less likely
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8. law of All or none-
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when hillock is excited at -55uV there will be an action potential.
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4. Nervous system
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-speedy electrochemical communication network
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a. Central nervous system (CNS)
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- brain and spinal cord
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b. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)-
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sensory and motor neurons that connect cns to everything else
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c. Nerves
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- neural cables containing many axons which connect cns with muscles glands and sense organs
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Sympathetic
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excites
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parasympathetic
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calms you down
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iv. Adrenal gland-
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top of kidneys release epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood stream during a flight or fight
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v. Pituitary gland-
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controls growth and all other endocrine glands
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a. Hormones
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i. Hang around a while
ii. Released in blood stream(takes a while to activate) |
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v. Reuptake-
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reabsorption of excess neurotransmitters for later use
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e. Myelin sheath-
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coats axon, faster communication(INSULATION FOR A WIRE)
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a. Clinical observation
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Disease
ii. Physical damage to specific parts and how it affects the person |
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ii. Lesion-
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destroying tiny parts of the brain without affecting nearby areas.
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i. Electroencephalogram (EEG)-
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amplified read out of brain waves measured along the scalp
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1. PET (positive emission tomography) Scan-
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depicts brain activity by showing glucose production
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2. MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) Scan-
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aligns atoms magnetically then uses radio waves to disorient atoms for a second. When they realign a detailed image is captured.
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3. fMRI (functional MRI) Scan-
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takes MRIs less than a second apart, which lights up parts of the brain due to increased oxygen/blood flow
a. may be foolproof lie detector test someday |
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a. The Brainstem
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Oldest innermost region
ii. Crossover point where nerves connect to body’s opposite side iii. Contains neurons necessary for sleep iv. Basic survival functions -medulla, pons, (goes up to thalamus but not sure if its part of it?) |
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v. Medulla
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1. Begins where spinal cord enters skull and swells slightly
2. Controls heartbeat and breathing |
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vi. Pons
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Just above the medulla
2. Helps coordinate movements |
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vii. Reticular formation
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Extends from spinal cord up to thalamus
2. Finger-shaped network of neurons that filters incoming stimuli and transfers it to the other side of the brain 3. Electrically stimulating instantly awakens and alerts you 4. Severing leads to coma |
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b. Thalamus
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Pair of egg-shaped structures on top of the brainstem
ii. Receives info from all senses except smell and routes it to other regions |
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c. Cerebellum
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Baseball sized structure that extends from the rear of the brainstem
ii. Resembles brain iii. nonverbal learning and one type memory iv. judge time, modulate emotions ,discriminate sounds and textures v. processes sensory info vi. coordinates voluntary movement vii. if severed- difficulty walking, balancing, jerky movements |
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d. Limbic System
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i. Vertical doughnut shaped in center of brain
ii. Memory and primal emotions (fear, anger, want for food/sex) -hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, pituitary gland |
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iii. Hippocampus
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1. Processes memory
2. Anterograde amnesia if lost (1 month memory gone) |
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iv. Amygdala
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1. two lima bean sized structures at front middle of brain stem
2. aggression and fear 3. stimulate = anger or fear 4. lesion = super mellow |
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v. Hypothalamus
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1. Small structure just below (hypo) the thalamus
2. Regulates internal environment a. Thirst b. Hunger c. Temperature 3. Controls pituitary gland 4. POWERFUL pleasure center (exhaust w/ lever and electric floor) |
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a. Reward deficiency syndrome-
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alcoholism, binge eating
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3. The Cerebral Cortex
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Intricate covering of interconnected neural cells (membrane)
b. Ultimate control/info processing center |
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i. Glial Cells
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1. Support billions of nerve cells and guide neural connections by providing nutrients and myelin
2. More glial per neuron = smarter (Einstein had extra) |
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ii. Lobes
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1. Frontal- behind forehead
2. Parietal- top and rear 3. Occipital- back/bottom 4. Temporal- sides of head above ears |
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i. Motor Cortex
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1. Arch at the back of the frontal lobe
2. Voluntary movement 3. Has been mapped and can be stimulated to move certain parts of the body(left=right/right=left |
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ii. Sensory Cortex
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1. Just behind motor cortex
2. Has same mapping as motor cortex, and can be stimulated to make people think they are being touched |
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iii. Association Areas
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1. The rest of the cerebral cortex
2. Integrate info and associate w/ memories |
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i. Visual cortex
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1. Receives written words/lip reading as stumuli
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vii. Corpus Callosum
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- large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them*****
1. Vogel and Bogen a. Cut corpus callosum b. He’Art |
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a. Sensation-
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detecting physical energy from the environment and encoding it as neural signs (light, pressure, chemical reactions)
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b. Perception-
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selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensations (episodic buffer, central executive)
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ii. Bottom up processing
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Sense receptors (lines, angles)
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iii. Top down processing
1. ) |
Experiences and expectations (title, apprehensive expressions
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a. Psychophysics
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- the study of how physical energy relates to our psychological experience (sea of energy)
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b. Absolute thresholds
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(kindergarten hearing tests)
i. The minimum stimulation necessary to detect something 50% of the time |
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c. Signal Detection theory
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i. Signal detection theory- predicts when we will detect weak signals by measuring our ratio of “hits” to “false alarms”(new parent/sentry)
ii. Depends on experience, expectations, motivation, and fatigue level |
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d. Subliminal Stimulation
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Subliminal- below the threshold of sensation or consciousness. Perceiving something without realizing it
ii. Can be used to prime your response |
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e. Difference thresholds
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(noticeable difference)
i. The minimum difference a person can detect between any two stimuli half the time (tuning an instrument, distinguishing voices, touch) 1. Tones- 0.3% 2. Weight- 2% 3. Light- 8% ii. Ernst Weber- two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion for their difference to be perceptible. |
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iii. Weber’s law-
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the difference threshold is not a constant amount but a constant proportion (approx. below)
1. Tones- 0.3% 2. Weight- 2% 3. Light- 8% |
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3. Sensory Adaptation
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a. Our diminishing sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus
b. Projector on surface of eye causes image to fade just like jumping in a pool |
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f. Pop out effect
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- a strikingly distinct stimulus catches our eye
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e. Inattentional blindness-
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failure to see something due to focus in another area (gorilla suit/umbrella)
i. Change blindness (construction worker switch) ii. Change deafness (while reading words change the person talking) iii. Choice blindness (attractiveness sleight of hand) |
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4. Selective Attention
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a. In any moment our awareness focuses like a flashlight on only a limited aspect of all we experience
b. 11,000,000 bits at a time, but we are only consciously aware of ‘bout 40 c. Driving while texting d. Cocktail party effect- ability to attend to one voice at a time (your name in loud noisy room) |
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a. Transduction-
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The process by which our sensory systems encode stimulus energy as neural messages
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b. Light Energy
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i. Electromagnetic spectrum
1. Humans can only see waves with wavelength from about 400 – 700 nanometers |
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2. Wavelength
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- The distance from one wave to the next
a. Hue- determined by wavelength, the color we experience b. Intensity- Amount of energy in light waves i. Determined by amplitude/height ii. Influences brightness |
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a. Cornea
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i. Covering over eye,
ii. Protection and bends light for focus |
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b. Pupil
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l
i. Black dot in center of eye ii. Small opening that lets light through |
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c. Iris
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i. Colored muscle around pupil
ii. Changes the pupil’s size iii. Can show your emotion and be scanned for identity |
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d. Lens
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i. Focuses incoming rays onto retina
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e. Acuity
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i. Sharpness in vision
ii. Can be affected by eyes shape |
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1. Nearsightedness
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a. Eyeball focuses rays in front of retina
b. Can’t see distanced objects well |
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2. Farsightedness
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a. Light rays reach retina before they have produced a focused image
b. Can’t see close objects well |
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a. Bipolar cells
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i. Activate neighboring ganglion cells
ii. The axons of ganglion cells come together to form the optic nerve sensory pathways for your senses |
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i. Rods and Cones
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1. Buried receptor cells in retina
2. Upon light striking them they create chemical changes that generate neural signals, which activate nearby bipolar cells |
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3. Optic nerve
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a. Carries info to your thalamus
b. There are no receptor cells where the optic nerve leaves the eye, leaving a blind spot in our vision |
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4. Cones
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a. Cluster around the fovea
i. The fovea is the retinas area of central focus ii. Contains no rods b. Direct connection to brain, more precise than rods c. Enable you to see COLOR |
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5. Rods
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a. See BLACK AND WHITE
b. Takeover in the dark i. Pupils dilate so light can reach rods in your retinas periphery |
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a. Feature Detection
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i. Feature detector neurons receive information and respond to a scene’s specific features
ii. Different areas of your visual cortex are used in processing different types of information |
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b. Parallel Processing
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(tigers roar)
i. Doing several things at once ii. Ex: color, depth, form, motion |
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a. Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory
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i. The retina can detect red, green, and yellow
ii. Subtractive color mixing 1. Paint 2. Subtracts wavelengths from reflective light iii. Additive color mixing 1. Light 2. Adds wavelengths and increases light |
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b. Color deficiency
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i. Monochromatic- one color
ii. Dichromatic- two color 1. Dogs are dichromatic |
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iii. Afterimages
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1. Staring at color then at white causes you to see opponent color
2. Opponent process theory a. After leaving receptor cells, visual info is processed in terms of its’ opponent color |
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c. Color constancy
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i. Comparisons govern our perceptions (ski goggles)
ii. We see color due to our brains perception of light reflected by any object relative to its’ surrounding objects |
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a. Behaviorism-
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study of behavior
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b. Consciousness-
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our awareness of ourselves and our environmenti. Sometimes arrives late to the “decision making party” (button)
ii. Novel tasks require conscious attention(tap 3 w/ left 4 w/ right) |
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a. Biological Rhythms-
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period of time which our body and mind fluctuate)
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a. Circadian rhythm
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- our bodies synchronize with the 24 hour day cycleb. Light can alter our circadian rhythms
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i. Suprachiasmatic nucleus-
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pair of pinheaded clusters of 20,000 cells that controls circadian clock
-controls the pineal gland |
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pineal gland
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controled by suprachiasmatic nucleus
melatonin (sleep inducing hormone) b. adenosine (inhibits certain neurons)(caffeine blocks it) |
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a. Sleep-
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a state we don’t know we are in until we leave it; a reversible loss of consciousness
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b. Electroencephalograph(EEG)-
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measures facial and eye activity
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i. Alpha waves-
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when your awake, relaxed but small wavelength and amplitude
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ii. Delta waves-
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stage 4 of sleep, large wavelength/amplitude
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c. sleep Stage 1:
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REM (rapid eye movement)- lots of brain/eye activity
i. May experience images resembling hallucinations(sensory w/out stimulus) ii. Hypnogogic sensations may be recorded into later memory(falling, floating) iii. Paraxial sleep- internally aroused, externally calm -muscles are relaxed but other body systems are still active |
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d. sleep Stage 2
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i. After twenty minutes, sleep spindles occur
1. Sleep spindles are rhythmic, rapid bursts of brain activity |
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e. sleep Stage 3 + 4
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i. Delta waves; slow-wave sleep
ii. 30 min iii. hard to awaken iv. Wetting the bed and sleep walking occur at the end of stage 4 |
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a. Effects of sleep deprivation
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i. Inability to retain memory
ii. Obesity iii. Loss of immunity iv. Sour mood v. Lack of concentration |
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b. Sleep theories
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i. Protection
1. Better off hidden in a cave from nocturnal predators ii. Restore and Repair Brain tissue iii. Remembering 1. Rebuilds fading memories of the days experiences iv. Growth |
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a. Narcolepsy-
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overwhelming sleepiness
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b. Insomnia
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- inability to sleep
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c. Sleep apnea-
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stop breathing and repeatedly wake up throughout the night
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d. Night terrors-
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sit up, walk around, appear terrified(different from nightmares(rem)
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c. Lucid dream-
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you are aware that you’re dreaming
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e. Manifest content
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- (freud) dreams incorporate traces of previous days’ experiences and preoccupations
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f. Why do we dream?
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i. To satisfy our own wishes (freud)
1. latent content 2. Most dreams can be traced back to sexual ideas ii. To file away memories 1. Information processing, sorting the days experiences iii. To develop and preserve neural pathways 1. Physiological function 2. Infants spend a lot of time in REM sleep iv. To make sense of neural static 1. Activation synthesis theory a. Neural activity is random b. Dreams are the brains attempt to make sense of it v. Reflect Cognitive Development 1. Brain maturation 2. |
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2. REM Rebound-
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when repeatedly awakened during REM, we fall back into it more quickly
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a. Tolerance-
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neuroadaptation as a result of continued use of a drug
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b. Withdrawal-
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a bodies response to drug absence (physical pain, intense cravings)
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c. types of Dependence
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Physical
ii. Psychological |
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i. Addiction-
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a craving for a substance despite adverse consequences
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ii. Misconceptions about addiction
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1. Addictive drugs quickly corrupt
2. Addictions can’t be overcome voluntarily 3. Addiction can be extended to a whole spectrum of pleasure seeking behaviors (but should we?) |
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2. Psychoactive Drugs-
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chemical substance that change perceptions and moods
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a. Depressants-
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calm neural activity and slows bodily functions
alcohol, barbituates, opiates |
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i. Alcohol
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1. Alcoholism shrinks the brain
2. Women become addicted more quickly 3. Impairs judgment, memory, and inhibitions (just urges without alcohol, [Drunk Driving]) 4. Interferes with REM sleep (memory) 5. Risk taking behavior rises 6. Many college students meet criteria for “Alcohol Abuse” |
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ii. Barbiturates
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1. “Tranquilizers”, mimic the effects of alcohol
2. Combined with alcohol, you can easily OD 3. Ex: Nembutal, Seconal, Amytal 4. Induce sleep, reduce anxiety 5. Large doses can impair memory and judgment 6. Often used in suicide, you can OD |
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iii. Opiates
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1. decreased neural functioning
2. Ex: Heroin, morphine 3. Pleasure replaces pain and anxiety 4. Very addictive, withdrawal is painful and OD is fairly common |
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b. Stimulants-
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temporarily excite neural activity and arouse body functions
nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, methamphetamine, ecstasy |
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amphetamines
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drugs that stimulate neural activity, speed up body functions and associated mood and energy changes, caffeine nicotine
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iii. Cocaine
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1. Highly addictive
2. 15-30 minute high, depletes brain of neurotransmitters 3. Can come in the form of “crack” a. Works faster and leads to more intense high and more intense crash |
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iv. Methamphetamine
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1. “speed”
2. Increase in self-confidence, decreased appetite, and increased breathing/heart rates 3. Up to 8 hours of heightened energy and euphoria 4. Highly addictive, lowers baseline dopamine levels and PERMANENTLY depressed functioning |
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v. Ecstasy
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1. MDMA (methylenedioxymethamphetamine)
2. Stores serotonin and blocks reuptake 3. Stimulant/mild hallucinogen 4. Triggers release of dopamine 5. intimacy, “I love everyone” 6. dehydration, death, increased risk of permanent depression |
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c. Hallucinogens-
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distort perceptions and invoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. (psychedelics)
lsd, marijuana |
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i. LSD
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1. Created by Albert Hoffmann in 1943
(lysergic acid diethylamide) 2. Chemically similar to and block the action of serotonin 3. Kaleidoscope, euphoria and detachment to panic 4. If you do it once, you can start tripping at any time 5. |
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Ronald Siegel
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a. However you hallucinate, you hallucinate the same way
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Albert Hoffman
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created lsd 1943
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i. Dualism-
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mind and body are two distinct entities
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ii. Monism-
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different aspects of the same thing
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6. Lsd and Near-Death Experiences
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a. Similar to acid trips
b. Tunnel, light, family, out of body c. Blow to duelists? |
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ii. Marijuana
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1. Active ingredient THC
2. Emotional magnifying glass 3. Amplifying sensitivity to colors, sounds, tastes, and smells 4. Some medical uses |
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3. Influences on drug use
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a. Increased 1970s, decreased than increased again in 1990s
b. Biological (neurons don’t quite fit) i. Genetics ii. Dopamine reward circuit c. Psychological i. Lack of sense of purpose ii. Stress iii. disorders d. Socio-Cultural Influences i. Urban ii. Peer pressure iii. Cultural group |
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a. Language-
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how we combine words as we think and communicate
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b. Phonemes
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- smallest sound unit
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c. Morpheme-
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smallest unit that carries meaning
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d. Grammar- semantics and syntax
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i. Semantics- rules used to derive meaning from morphemes
ii. Syntax- rules used to order words in sentences |
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i. Babbling stage-
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4 months, spontaneously uttered sounds
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ii. One-word stage
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- 1 to 2 years, mostly one word sentences
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iii. Two-word stage-
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age 2, two word statements
1. Telegraphic speech noun and verb |
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c. Explaining Language Development
i. Skinner |
1. Operant Learning
2. Association, imitation, reinforcement |
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c. Explaining Language Developmentii. Chomsky
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1. Inborn grammar
2. Overgeneralizing (adding –ed) |
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explaining language development
iii. Cognitive Scientists: |
Statistical Learning and Critical Periods
1. Testing children with nonsense syllables 2. They learn faster than older people |
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i. Benjamin Lee Whorf
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1. Linguistic determinism- language shapes a man’s thoughts
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1. Latent content-
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unconscious drives and wishes that would be threatening if expressed directly
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path of a hallucination
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1.shapes
2.people you know, emotional, tunnel 3.out of body experience |
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why can you trip on acid anytime after you've done it once?
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cerebral spinal fluid
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what causes accents
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you have trouble learning phonemes of another language after you've already know your language's after 7 years old
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ex of something that is morpheme and phoneme
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I, a , s
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receptive language
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the ability to comprehend speech
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what starts the babbling stage
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the ability to discriminate human speech and read lips (4 months)
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productive language
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babbling stage, spontaneously uttered sound
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support for chomsky's theory
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3. First words are nouns
4. All language contains nouns, verbs, adj. language acquired too fast children raised in isolation make their own language |
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About what age does your window for easy language acquisition close?
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7
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Heritability
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The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes, varies depending on range of populations and environments studied. Never pertains to an individual!
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Stereotype Threat
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A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
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ii. Angular gyrus
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1. Visual to Auditory code
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iii. Wernicke’s area
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1. Interprets auditory
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iv. Broca’s area
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1. Controls speech muscles via motor cortex
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1. Retina-
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light sensitive inner surface with multiple layers of tissue
ii. Changes its’ curvature in a process called accommodation |
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order in communication processing
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visual cortex
angular gyrus wernicke's area broca's area |
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What percentage of the difference between individual IQ scores can be attributed to genetic differences among the sample
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50%
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challenges of impoverished family's (intelligence)
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school systems
malnutrition |
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Wechdler's iq scale
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avg 100
significant difference is 15 |
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Social construction-
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concept, practice, behavior, or belief system which is constructed by a particular group
-swearing, clothing, race, religion, everything |
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dopamine
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-influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion
-excess dopamine is linked to schizophrenia -starved=brain produces tremors and decreased mobility of parkinson's disease |
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3 types of amnesia
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-transient global- brief period due to migrane lack of oxygen (concussion, choked out)
-anterograde-(dory) short term -retrograde- forget what happened before event |
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acetylcholine
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-causes muscles to contract
-plays a role in memory and learning -Alzheimers is when ACh producing neurons deteriorate |
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serotonine
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Affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal
-defeciency = depression |
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Flynn Effect
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IQ scores past century are rising due to the drop of college entrance aptitude scores
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Sections of Nervous System and description
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2 CNS(brain, spinalcord), peripheral(links CNS to rest of body)-
2somatic(voluntary muscles), autonomic(organs and glands)- 2sympathetic(arousal), parasympathetic(calming) |
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Wernicke's aphasia
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(left temporal lobe)speak only meaningless words
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Broca's aphasia
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(left frontal lobe) struggle to speak words while still able to sing familiar songs and comprehend speech
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biopsychoscial approach
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biological- genetic predispositions and mutations, natural selection
psychological- learned expectations and fears, cognitive process, emotion social-cultural- presence of others, cultural expectations, media |
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Where is the location in your brain responsible for recognizing faces?
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Behind your ear
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four things interpreted during parallel processing
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color, motion, form, depth
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four types of biological rhythms
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annual, 28 day, 24 hour, 90 minute
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when we think and conceptualize our environment.
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visualization
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