Psy Exam 2- Mod 17, 18, 19

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so what exactly is learning??

Back 1

The relatively PERMENANT CHANGE in someone’s behavior in a given situation, brought about by his or her REPEATED experiences in that situation.

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well how do we know if learning has occured?

Back 2

if we Observe changes in behavior

-experience--->change--->learning!

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then how is learning related to psychology?

Back 3

1. NUTURE vs. NATURE! >experiences
2. Social Psychology
Norms

3.Disorders
Phobias

4. Therapies
Change in learning

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what are the 3 types of learning that psychologists study?

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Classical Conditioning: We learn to expect and prepare for significant events such as food or pain
Operant Conditioning:We also learn to repeat acts that bring good results and to avoid acts that bring bad results
Observational Learning:By watching others we learn new behavior

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philosophers such as John Locke and David Hume echoed Aristotle’s conclusion from 2000 years earlier:

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we learn by association!
ex: we put scary music with the association that something bad will happen

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By linking two events that occur close together (if a dog sits it gets a treat) they are demonstrating:

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associative learning

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conditioning

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is the process of learning associations. In classical conditioning, the topic of Module 17, we learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events. We learn that a flash of lightning signals an impending crack of thunder, so when lightning flashes nearby, we start to brace ourselves

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operant conditioning

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we learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence and thus to repeat acts followed by good results (Figure 7.2) and avoid acts followed by bad results.

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conditioned=

unconditioned=

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learned

unlearned

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Ivan Pavlov’s Accidental Discovery

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Association of stimuli and anticipated occurrence

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more about classic conditioning

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>We naturally connect 2 things that occur in sequence
>This helps us predict or change our immediate future

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unconditioned stimulus

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Stimulus that unconditionally (naturally) triggers a response
(the dog just automatically slobbering when he tastes food)

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unconditioned response (UCR)

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The unlearned, naturally occurring response to UCS

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pavlov explored five major conditioning processes

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acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination.

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acquisition

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or initial learning, of the stimulus-response relationship

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the diminished responding that occurs when the CS (tone) no longer signals an impending US (food).

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is extinction

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spontaneous recovery

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the reappearance of a (weakened) CR after a pause—suggested to Pavlov that extinction was suppressing the CR rather than eliminating it.

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generalization

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This tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called. one thing makes you dislike or like something else just because you associate the two together

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discrimination

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is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the US) and other irrelevant stimuli. Being able to recognize differences is adaptive. Slightly different stimuli can be followed by vastly different consequences. Confronted by a guard dog, your heart may race; confronted by a guide dog, it probably will not.

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John B. Watson's classic conditioning experiment

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Strict Behaviorist
>Recommended the study of behavior without any reference to unobservable mental processes

Baby Albert (white rat associated with loud noise scared him) Experiment
>Is human emotion a conditioned response?
US = loud noise
UR = fear
CS = rat
CR = fear

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you can condition yourself to get over a fear

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-if you are scared of being in an elevator alone, go in 20 elevators a day. so (in most cases) the fear will vanish.

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Two forms of associative learning are classical conditioning, in which the organism associates ________, and operant conditioning, in which the or ganism associates ________________.

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two stimuli; a response and a consequence

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nuetral stimulus NS

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the stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

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unconditioned response UR

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in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

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conditioned response CR

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n classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

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conditioned stimulus CS

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in classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

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acquistion

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in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

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operant conditioning

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module 18

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thorndike (psychologist)

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not all learning can be explained by classical conditioning

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thorndike's LAW OF EFFECT

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behaviors followed by FAVORABLE CONSEQUENCES become MORE likely and behaviors followed by UNfavorable consequences becomes LESS likely

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BF skinner

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he elaborated on thorndike's law of effect
-developed behavioral technology
- he made the skinner box/operant chamber: The box has a bar (a lever) that an animal presses—or a key (a disc) that an animal pecks—to release a reward of food or water, and a device that records these responses.

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OPERANT CONDITIONING:
I. operant behavior

II. reinforcer

III. Punishment

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I. -behavior that acts ON the environment
-produces consequences

II.any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

III. any event that weakens the behavior it follows

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2 types of reinforcement

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1. primary reinforcement: innately reinforcing stimulus, satisfies a biological need. ex: food

2. conditioned reinforcer: stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with primary reinforcer. ex:money

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positive and negative reinforcers

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positive: addition of a DESIRABLE stimulus

negative: subtraction of an AVERSIVE(meaning inducing something disliked) stimulus

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Punishments

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positive punishment: ADDITION of an aversive stimulus. ex. spanking/ parking ticket

negative punishment: Subtraction of a Desirable stimulus. ex: getting grounded, losing driving privilege

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schedules of reinforcement

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a reinforcement schedule is a RULE stating WHICH instances of BEHAVIOR, if any, will be REINFORCED

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2 types of schedules of reinforcement

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-Continuous reinforcement: reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs
ex: complimenting someone and each time a smile is given back (or reinforced)

2. partial (intermittent) reinforcement: reinforcing a response only part of the time. (more likely in "real life") ex: sales person doesn't make a sale everytime, but they keep trying because they know they have done it before

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schedules of reinforcment:
Fixed ration (FR)

variable ratio (VR)

Fixed Intervals (FI)

variable intervals (VI)

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FR- reinforce after specified number of responses (free coffee after you buy 10)

VR- reinforce after unpredictable number of responses (casinos reward players at random times)

FI- reinforce after specified time has lapsed (checking more an more often as you know the time is approaching)

VI- reinforce at unpredictable time intervals

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latent learning

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learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

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cognitive map

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a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

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observational learning

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learning by observing others

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modeling

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process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

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Observational learning:
social learning theory by Albert Bandura

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1961 bobo doll
kids that saw someone come in and beat up the doll would do the same but kids who did not see an adult beat up the doll first basically ignored the doll

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observational learning (different types)

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positive and negative learning

prosocial behavior + reading, helping others

antisocial behavior - abuse, aggression

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does tv/media aggression (violent video games) make people more violent?

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Correlational: yes, it has positive correlation, but does not prove causation.

experimental: definite maybe, short term increases in mild aggression for some people.

Desensitization: once you've been exposed to something so many times it doesnt have the same effect on you

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mirror nuerons

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whose activity provides a neural basis for imitation and observational learning. (ex: the monkey had monitors that would buzz when he ate a peanut, but it would often buzz again when watching another monkey eat a peanut) we do it more than we know. ex: its harder to frown when others are smiling

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what is memory?

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Process of encoding, storage and retrieval

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what is encoding?

what is storage?

what is retrieval?

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1. getting info into our brain

2. retain the info in our brain

3. getting the info out of our brain

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memory retrieval

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Recall: ex- fill-in-the blank or an Essay (when you know the answer before it is shown to you)

recognition: multiple choice test

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tip of the tongue phenomenon

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what helps:
how many syllables did the name have?
what letter did the name begin with?
what did the name mean?

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info-processing models

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sensory memory= sensory input: fleeting unless attended to

short term memory: active processing, fleeting unless rehearsed

long term memory: info stored; can be retrieved.

model:
external events-->sensory memory--(encoding)-->short term memory--(encoding)--> <--(retrieving)--long term memory

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sensory memory

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Lasts for up to a second (remember the flash of letters in class that we had to memorize)
Can hold about 12 pieces of information
Iconic Memory (visual learner)
Echoic Memory (memory for sound and song)

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short term memory

long term memory

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lasts 2-3 minutes
can hold about 7 pieces of info (give or take 2)

last indefinitely
can hold billions of pieces of info
requires 2-5 years to solidify info

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types of long term memory

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explicit: conscious recall.
processed in hippocampus
retains facts and general knowledge, personal experiences


implicit: unconscious recall (what you do daily. ex: driving a car)
processed in other places including cerebellum. retains skills and classical and operant conditioning effects

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effortful

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often produces durable and accessible memories. because to remember things (like this test) we have to put work and effort into it

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rehearsal (Ebbinghaus)

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When learning novel information, such as names, we can boost our memory through rehearsal, or conscious repetition.

the amount remembered depends on the time spent learning it (Ebbinghaus discovered this)

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what we know about encoding

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-rehearsal works!

-making info meaningful works better than rehearsal ( if you can explain it, you know it)

-Mnemonics: my very excellent mother just served me noodles

-chunking: organize info into familiar memorable chunks

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spacing affect

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we retain better if we rehearse over a period of time, not massed practice (cramming)

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serial position effect

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people usually remember the first and last (relative) things on a long list

Primacy Effect – Tendency to recall first things in list
Recalled easiest long term
Recency Effect – Tendency to recall last things in list
Recalled easiest short term

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encoding meaning

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we encode the meaning not the actual words

the more meaningful the easier to encode (10X easier than nonsense)

how do we make things meaningful: relating to self, relationg to other info, processing depth

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encoding imagery

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powerful aid to effortful processing

deeper processing if used with semantic encoding

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forgetting a memory

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memory failure

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is the brain's storage space limited?

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from a literal stand point? yes
most adults store impressive amounts of info... 1,000,000,000
however the capacity is more like 1 million times that

so from a practical point then no it is not limited

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storage: Synaptic changes

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-learning creates/ changes neural synapses
-the sequence of neural activation creates a stored memory
-to retrieve the memory we must activate the correct neurons in order
-the more we access the memory the stronger the neural pathways become

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memory retrieval: Relearning

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so much easier the second time around!

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memory retrieval: Priming

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activation, often unconsciously, of associations in memory

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memory and context effects

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remembering something better if cues or the context of where you are help retrieval

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mood-congruent memory

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recall experiences consistent with current mood

memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues

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state-dependent

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what you learned in one state (one drugs) you can more easily remember in that same state

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retrieval cues and Expertise

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central concepts become increasingly eleborated, organized and inter connected

you need to spend a minimum of 5,000-10,000 hours practicing

ex: taxi drivers or chess masters, they are pros and dont even really have to think about the task they have to do

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flashbulb memory

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emotional event trigger hormone changes : why might we be particularly likely to remember an emotionally-charged or fearful event?
-because we are emotionally invested

-the more you tell a story the more you change it
-may not be totally accurate

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Anterograde Amnesia

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unable to recall events AFTER the onset:
- cant form mew explicit memories
- can sometimes form new implicit memories
-often caused by trauma or drugs

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retro grade amnesia

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unable to recall events BEFORE the onset (cant remember those retro days)
-may remember what a piano is, relearning is faster
- following trauma

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Clive Wearing

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-famous musician
-herpes simplex encephalitis
-anterograde amnesia
-he is living in a void, really only recognizes his wife. has about a 30 second memory

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we were talking about forgetting...
what about instances of "strange remembering?

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Deja vu: cues triggers retrieval of earlier experience
ex: being on a different university campus

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forgetting

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forgetting can occur at any memory stage

as we process info, we filter, ALTER or LOSE much of it

it can occur do to encoding failure or interference

-encoding failure leads us to forget or failure to retrieve info from long-term mem

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foregetting and interference types

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proactive (forward acting) interference: disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new info

Retroactive (backwards acting): disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old info

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what happens if you go to sleep?

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after you sleep you can recall so much better than when you tried to force yourself to stay awake

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false memory and creating false memory

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Elizabeth Loftus
Studies of being lost in a mall
≈ 30% reported being lost
0% in her study had been
After being told ≈ 20% picked wrong event as false


-we filter info and fill in missing pieces with our imagination

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car crash study (false memoru)

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-eye witness testimony (changing one word)

video of car accident

speed estimation and damage estimation were different depending one what word you were told (hit or smashed)

eye witness is not reliable !
-the higher certainty the more likely that it is a false memory

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source anmesia

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attributing to the wrong source event that we experienced heard about read about or imagined.

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Organizing information into broad categories, which are then divided into subcategories, is known as

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hierarchical organization

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10. Amnesia following hippocampus damage typically leaves people unable to learn new facts or recall recent events. However, they may be able to learn new skills, such as riding a bicycle, which is an _______ memory.

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implicit

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the hippocampus seems to function as what

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temporary prcoessing site for explicit memory

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sensation and perception

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module 14

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what is sensation?

what is perception?

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sensory receptors receive stimuli from environment

brain organizes and interprets sensory info

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allusion vs. hallusination

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allusion: your brain changes an objects appearance

hallusination: nothing is actually there

everyone has different perception and senses

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(B)ottom-up processing

Top- down processing

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(B)IG picture. synthesis of info

Decomposition of stimuli
prior experience and expectations (figuring out details)

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does sensation always lead to perception?

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sensory info may NOT reach threshold for perception

absolute threshold: minimum stimulation needed to detect stimulus, 50% of the time (hearing test, its the lowest tone you can hear 50% of the time)

difference threshold: just noticeable difference

minimum difference that can be detected between 2 stimuli 50% of the time (ex: color difference, how different do that they have to be for you to recognize they are different 50% of the time) or (ex: your holding 2 weights, how much weight has to be added to one for you to tell the difference)

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subliminal stimulation

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-can we be influenced by subliminal info? yes we can just not very often
what is subliminal? just below the threshold

subliminal info can prime response. the affect is fleeting (does really make a difference)

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sensory adaptations

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diminishing sensitivity to unchanging stimulus (you get used to it, like the smell of something bad)

what happens if we wear a pair of glasses taht turn the world upside down..we adapt!

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vision the basics:

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stimulus input: light energy
-electromagnetic spectrum (we dont see that much of the spectrum)

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vision the basics:
physical characteristics of light

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wavelength= distance from peak to peak (Hue)

amplitude= height of peak (wave)= higher the peak the brighter the color

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the EYE!

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-light enters through the cornea
-passes through the pupil to the lens
-lens focuses the light into an image on retina (upside down)
-info converges at the optic nerve
retina: composed of rods and cones

(C)ones:(C)olor, detail, center of retina

rods: black and white. sensitive to dimlight. periphery

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blind spot

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where the optic nerve leaves eye (blindspot) everyone has one.

no receptor cells

*eyeballs communicate w/ both hemispheres

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visual info processing

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feature detection: visual cortex has feature detection neurons.

detect edges, lines, angles, movement

Parallel processing (multitasking): our brain engages in parallel processing. damage to certain areas inhibits our conscious awareness of visual stimuli

*does sensation always lead to perception? NO
*what about perception with out perception? Yes (phantom limbs)

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color vision

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-opponent process theory: the theory that opposing retinal process (red-green). enable color vision.
cones work as a switch when "on" we see red "off" we see green

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Gesalt

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gesalt: an organized whole

the whole is greater than its parts

your brain organizes info into meaningful wholes (top down processing)

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gesalt

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"form" or "whole" : perceive object (form) distinct form surroundings (ground)

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Gesalt grouping

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organizing the figure into a meaningful form (when you see a picture of 1/2 a table you assume the other half is there)

different ways we group: proximity (who you live by), similarity, continuity, connectedness and closure (closing the circle)

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depth perception

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= seeing objects as 3D

allows us to estimate distance

are we born with depth perception: No (its learned)
visual cliff: laboratory device designed to test depth perception in infants and animals

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binocular depth cues

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help in judging distance of nearby objects

retinal disparity

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other binocular cues

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depth cues that depend on both eyes

retinal disparity: by comparing images from both eyes, the brain computes distance

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monocular depth cues

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-cues available to each eye seperately
-helps judge how close objects are: relative size

helps us with interposition (how we know where everything is positioned when looking at a picture or scene)

linear perception: the train tracks look like they combine unless it curves somewhere.

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perceptual constancy

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-Color constancy: perception of color remains constant despite changes in illumination

what happens if we change the context? changing the background to a picture might make you see colors differently

-Light constancy

-shape constancy: despite changes in shape, shape perceived as constant

-size constancy: a person walking towards us does not get bigger, they get closer (ex: the moon looks like its closer some nights)

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perceptual interpretation

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to what extent do we learn to perceive?

evidence comes from: sensory deprivation, restored vision

perceptual sets: predispostions that influence our perceptions (why you need to get your paper proof read because you make your brain think the word is right)

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perceptual adaptation

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you adapt to your own or someone else's way of seeing something

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the thatcher effect

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s a phenomenon where it becomes difficult to detect local feature changes in an upside down face, despite identical changes being obvious in an upright face