Psy Exam 2

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sensation

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a physical feeling or perception resulting from something that happens to or comes into contact with the body or the reaction of interest or excitement

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perception

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the state of being or process of becoming aware of something through the senses a way of regarding, understanding, or interpreting something; a mental impression.

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vision

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an experience of seeing someone or something in a dream or trance, or as a supernatural apparition.

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olfaction

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sense of smelling

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kinesthetics

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learning as the process that results in new knowledge (or understanding) with the involvement of the learner's body movement.

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sensory receptors

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is any structure specialized to detect a stimulus. Some receptors are simple, bare nerve endings, such as the receptors for heat and pain, whereas others are true sense organs

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transduction

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to reasoning from specific cases to general cases, typically employed by children during their development

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bottom-up processing

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Information enters the eyes in one direction (input), and is then turned into an image by the brain that can be interpreted and recognized as a perception (output). In a bottom-up approach the individual base elements of the system are first specified in great detail. These elements are then linked together to form larger subsystems, which then in turn are linked, sometimes in many levels, until a complete top-level system is formed.

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top-down processing

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is essentially the breaking down of a system to gain insight into its compositional sub-systems

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absolute threshold

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lowest level of a stimulus —light, sound, touch, etc.—that an organism could detect

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difference threshold

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smallest amount by which two sensory stimuli can differ in order for an individual to perceive them as different.

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sensory adaptation & example

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diminished sensitivity to a stimulus as a consequence of constant exposure to that stimulus. Brain cells begin to fire when they pick up on a new stimulus in your environment as signaled by your sensory organs (ears, eyes, nose, etc.).sensory adaptation at some point. The constant loud sound of a running air conditioner, for instance, seems irritating when it is first turned on. However, within an hour you'll most likely have forgotten all about that sound and no longer notice it.

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color/wavelength

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determines its color and the wavelength of sound determines the pitch.

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brightness/intensity

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an attribute of visual perception in which a source appears to be radiating or reflecting light

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cornea

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the transparent front part of the eye that covers the iris, pupil, and anterior chamber

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retina

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is a light-sensitive layer of tissue, lining the inner surface of the eye.

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fovea

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a small depression in the retina of the eye where visual acuity is highest. The center of the field of vision is focused in this region, where retinal cones are particularly concentrated.

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rods

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photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye that can function in less intense light than the other type of visual photoreceptor, cone cells. Rods are concentrated at the outer edges of the retina and are used in peripheral vision.

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cones

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One of the photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that is responsible for daylight and color vision; they are densely concentrated in the fovea centralis

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feature detector & example

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a process by which specialized nerve cells in the brain respond to specific features of a visual stimulus, such as lines, edges, angle, or movement. The nerve cells fire selectively in response to stimuli that have specific characteristics E.G shape, angle, or movement. example prey animals like horses and sheep need to be able to quickly identify movement, even when it occurs in their peripheral vision. Their feature detection is fine-tuned for any signs of movement so they can identify predators and respond to them.

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trichromatic theory of color vision

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there are three receptors in the retina that are responsible for the perception of color.The trichromatic theory of color vision was formulated in 1802 by the English physician Thomas Young and formalized in 1852 by the influential German physiologist, physicist, and mathematician Hermann von Helmholtz.

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audition

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is the sense of sound perception and results from tiny hair fibers in the inner ear

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opponent-process theories of color vision

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is a color theory that states that the human visual system interprets information about color by processing signals from cones and rods in an antagonistic manner.Ewald Hering, the father of the opponent processes theory made some very interesting observations that could not be accounted for by the trichromatic theory.

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Gestalt Psychologist approach to the study of perception?

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The Gestalt psychologists believed that mental experience was dependent not on a simple combination of elements but on the organization and patterning of experience and of one's perceptions.

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Different gestalt principles

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central principle of gestalt psychology is that the mind forms a global whole with self-organizing tendencies. This principle maintains that the human mind considers objects in their entirety before

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monocular cues

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depth perception cue that can be perceived with only one eye.

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binocular cues

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help you judge how far things are due to the fact that you have 2 eyes

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retinal disparity

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the slight difference in retinal images that arises because of the lateral separation of the two eyes that stimulates stereoscopic vision.

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visual cliff experiment

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the red-and-white checkered surface, the baby hesitating at the edge of a glass-topped drop-off and the connection between emotions and facial expressions

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perceptual constancies

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the tendency of animals and humans to see familiar objects as having standard shape, size, colour, or location regardless of changes in the angle of perspective, distance, or lighting. The impression tends to conform to the object as it is or is assumed to be, rather than to the actual stimulus.

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Cochlea

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is the auditory portion of the inner ear.

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auditory nerve

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is a bundle of nerve fibers that carries hearing information between the cochlea the brain.

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classical conditioning

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a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone

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components of a classical conditioning experiment

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The unconditioned stimulus is the stimulus that naturally and instinctively elicits the target response, which, in the case of his classic experiment is the meat powder. The conditioned stimulus is the stimulus that comes to elicit the target response, which was the tone in Pavlov’s experiment. The unconditioned and conditioned responses are a little trickier to identify in that they are often the exact same behavior. For example in Pavlov’s experiment they are both salivation. The fundamental difference is that the unconditioned response occurs as a result of the unconditioned stimulus, and the conditioned response occurs in response to the conditioned stimulus.

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Unconditional stimuli

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is the stimulus that naturally and instinctively elicits the target response, which, in the case of his classic experiment is the meat powder.

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unconditional response

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unconditioned response occurs as a result of the unconditioned stimulus,

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conditioned stimuli

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is the stimulus that comes to elicit the target response, which was the tone in Pavlov’s experiment

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conditioned response

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occurs in response to the conditioned stimulus

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acquisition

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first stages of learning when a response is established

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extinction

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is observed in both operantly conditioned and classically conditioned behavior. When operant behavior that has been previously reinforced no longer produces reinforcing consequences the behavior gradually stops occurring

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Ivan Pavlov

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The researcher with which classical conditioning is most often associated is Ivan Pavlov. In fact, classical conditioning is sometimes referred to as "Pavlovian" conditioning. Pavlov was a Russian physician and researcher who did a lot of important work studying the digestive system, for which he won a Novel prize in 1904. He’s best known however, for his development of a model for describing a basic non-conscious instinctual type of learning.

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taste aversion

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a case where an organism learns to have an aversion to the taste or smell or other characteristics of some food or drink. For example, after consuming too much alcohol, it’s not unusual for someone to associate the smell or even sight of the alcohol with the sickness that resulted from consuming the alcohol

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Baby albert and what happened in the baby albert experiment

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"Little Albert". John B. Watson carried out a classical conditioning experiment with a child (Little Albert) by making a loud noise behind the child’s head (smashing two bars together) as the child was playing with a rabbit. Though the child was quite happy playing with the rabbit up until that time, he came to be terrified of the rabbit

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operant conditioning

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is a type of learning in which an individual's behavior is modified by its antecedents and consequences.

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operant conditioning experiment

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way of learning by means of rewards and punishment

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reinforcement

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is a consequence that will strengthen an organism's future behavior whenever that behavior is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus.

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punishment

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is any change in a human or animal's surroundings that occurs after a given behavior or response which reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future.

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primary and secondary reinforces an how to them apart

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primary reinforces often have an evolutionary basis in that they aid in the survival of the species like air and water

secondary reinforces acquire their power via a history of association with primary reinforcers or other secondary reinforcers. For example, if I told you that dollars were no longer going to be used as money, then dollars would lose their power as a secondary reinforcer.

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difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

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Intrinsic motivation is the motivation that comes from inside the performer.

Extrinsic motivation refers to motivation that comes from outside an individual.

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latent learning

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form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned.

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insight learning

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theory of learning first put forth by Wolfgang Kohler about 90 years ago. Learn about the development and definition of this theory and then test your knowledge with a short quiz

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observational learning

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is a type of learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating novel behavior executed by others.

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albert bandura

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In social learning theory Albert Bandura (1977) states behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.

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memory and how it works

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the faculty by which the mind stores and remembers information

Memory is the ability to encode, store and recall information. The three main processes involved in human memory are therefore encoding, storage and recall (retrieval). Additionally, the process of memory consolidation (which can be considered to be either part of the encoding process or the storage process) is treated here as a separate process in its own right.

Some of the physiology

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encoding

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allows the perceived item of use or interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored within the brain and recalled later from short term or long term memory.

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storage

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system of storing information through the alignment of small grains in a magnetic material. Once the grains have been aligned by an external magnetic field, the information remains stored for long periods of time.

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retrieval

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the process of obtaining memory information from wherever it has been stored.

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short-term memory

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also known as primary or active memory, is the information we are currently aware of or thinking about.

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iconic memory

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refers to the short term visual memories people store when seeing something very briefly. They create pictures in the mind.

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components of working memory

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as an alternative to the multi-store model of memory. It has been developed to directly challenge the concept of a single unitary store for short-term memories. The working memory model is based upon the findings of the dual-task study and suggests that there are four separate components to our working memory (STM).

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explicit long-term memory

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since it consists of information that is explicitly stored and retrieved, although it is more properly a subset of explicit memory.

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implicit long term memory

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previous experiences aid in the performance of a task without explicit and conscious awareness of these previous experiences, although it is more properly a subset of implicit memory.

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chunking processing

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involves creating something more meaningful—and therefore memorable—from seemingly random bits of information

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shallow processing

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In shallow processing we don't make a lasting memory."

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deep processing

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involves elaboration rehearsal which involves a more meaningful analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations etc.) of information and leads to better recall.

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flashbulb memories

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one type of autobiographical memory. Some researchers believe that there is reason to distinguish flashbulb memories from other types of autobiographical memory because they rely on elements of personal importance, consequentiality, emotion, and surprise.

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retrieval cue

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are stimuli that help you retrieve a certain memory.

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state-dependent memory

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learning is the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed.

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serial position effect

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is the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best, and the middle items worst.

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encoding failure

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refers to the brain's ability to store and recall events and information, either short or long-term. This faculty can fail for a number of reasons; trauma or substance use being the most common. When this happens, it can prevent the brain from creating and storing memories. Many of us can identify times in our lives where, due to an accident, traumatic event or substance use, we are unable to remember specific events or actions.

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retrieval failure

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failure to recall a memory due to missing stimuli or cues that were present at the time the memory was encoded. Encoding is the first step in creating and remembering a memory

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interference

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occurs when one memory interferes with another, impairing memory. Some psychologists believe interference causes forgetting.

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repression

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is the psychological attempt by an individual to repel one's own desires and impulses toward pleasurable instincts by excluding the desire from one's consciousness and holding or subduing it in the unconscious.

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misinformation effect

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Long-term memory is very prone to errors and can easily be altered and molded. This inaccuracy is enhanced by the misinformation effect, which occurs when misleading information is incorporated into one's memory after an event.

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source amnesia

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the inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge. This branch of amnesia is associated with the malfunctioning of one's explicit memory

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concepts

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a general notion or idea

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hierarchies

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a system or organization in which people or groups are ranked one above the other according to status or authority.

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algorithm

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process or set of rules to be followed in calculations or other problem-solving operations, especially by a computer

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mental sets

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This tendency to only see solutions that have worked in the past is known as a mental set. These mental sets can sometimes lead to rigid thinking and can create difficulties in the problem-solving process. While in many cases we can use our past experiences help solve the issues we face, it can make it difficult to see novel or creative ways of fixing current problems.

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fixation

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A lack of proper gratification during one of the psychosexual stages of development.

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confirmation bias

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phenomenon that explains why people tend to seek out information that confirms their existing opinions and overlook or ignore information that refutes their beliefs.

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availability heuristic

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is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind. The availability heuristic operates on the notion that if something can be recalled, it must be important.

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belief perseverance

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People tend to hold on to their beliefs even when it appears that they shouldn't. Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to one's initial belief even after receiving new information that contradicts or dis- confirms the basis of that belief.

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framing

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effect is an example of cognitive bias, in which people react to a particular choice in different ways depending on whether it is presented as a loss or as a gain. People tend to avoid risk when a positive frame is presented but seek risks when a negative frame is presented.

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critical period

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is an important stage in the life span of an organism as it acquires a particular developmental skill that is indispensable in their life span.

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aphasia

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inability comprehend

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symptoms related to damage in Broca's area

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person's language functions.

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symptoms related to damage in Wernicke's area

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receptive, fluent aphasia.

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spearman

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Charles E. Spearman, in full Charles Edward Spearman (born September 10, 1863, London, England—died September 17, 1945, London), British psychologist who theorized that a general factor of intelligence, g, is present in varying degrees in different human abilities

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gardner

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suggests that people possess multiple intelligences rather than one single mental ability.

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Sternberg

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intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to oneâs life." While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested some of Gardner's intelligences are better viewed as individual talents.

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crystallized and fluid intelligence

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fluid and crystallized intelligence (respectively abbreviated Gf and Gc) are factors of general intelligence, originally identified by Raymond Cattell. Concepts of fluid and crystallized intelligence were further developed by John L. Horn, the primary student of Raymond Cattell.

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emotional intelligence

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is the ability to monitor one's own and other people's emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior. There are three models of EI.

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creator of the first intelligence test and the reason

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Alfred binet, individually administered intelligence test that was revised from the original Binet-Simon Scale by Lewis M. Terman, a psychologist at Stanford University. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is now in its Fifth Edition. It is a cognitive ability and intelligence test that is used to diagnose developmental or intellectual deficiencies in young children. The test measures five weighted factors and consists of both verbal and nonverbal subtests. The five factors being tested are knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, working memory, and fluid reasoning

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how is IQ measured

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IQ test series is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale for adults and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children for school-age test-takers

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neutral stimuli

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which initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention. In classical conditioning, when used together with an unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus.

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sensory

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the shortest-term element of memory. It is the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended.

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prototypes

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Generally, an item, person or event believed to be the typical example or representation to stand for that category