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119 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Define Self-concept.
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The sum total of an individual’s beliefs about his or her own personal attributes.
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Define Self-schema.
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A belief people hold about themselves that guides the processing of self-relevant information.
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At what age do humans begin to recognize themselves in a mirror (self-concept).
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18-24 months |
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Who termed the phrase “looking-glass self” and what was he attempting to explain?
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Charles Horton Cooley
-to explain that we use others as a mirror in which we see ourselves |
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What are the sources of self-concept?
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1. Introspection
2. Self-perception 3. Influences of other people 4. Autobiographical memories 5. Culture |
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Define Affective forecasting.
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The process of predicting how one would feel in response to future emotional events.
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What term is used to describe how people are known for overestimating the strength of an emotional reaction?
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Impact bias |
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Define Self-perception theory.
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The theory that when internal cues are difficult to interpret, people gain self-insight by observing their own behavior.
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Define Facial feedback hypothesis.
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The hypothesis that changes in facial expressions can lead to corresponding changes in emotion.
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What type of motivation originates in factors within a person?
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Intrinsic motivation |
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What type of motivation originates in factors outside a person?
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Extrinsic motivation |
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Define Overjustification effect.
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The tendency for intrinsic motivation to diminish for activities that we have become associated with reward or other extrinsic factors.
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Define Social comparison theory.
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The theory that people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others.
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Who pioneered the idea of social comparison theory in 1954?
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Leon Festinger |
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Define Two-factor theory of emotion.
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The theory that the experience of emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal.
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Describe a well-supported conclusion for Schachter’s two-factor theory.
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When people are unclear about their own emotional states, they sometimes interpret how they feel by watching others.
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Describe individualistic cultures.
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Those cultures that stress the importance of independence, autonomy, and self-reliance. (Western culture) |
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Describe collectivistic cultures.
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Those cultures that stress interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony.
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Define Dialecticism.
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An Eastern system of thought that accepts the coexistence of contradictory characteristics within a person.
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Define Self-esteem.
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An affective component of the self, consisting of a person’s positive and negative self-evaluations.
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What are two reasons we need high self-esteem?
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- Sociometer theory
- Terror management theory |
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Describe Sociometer theory.
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We’re social animals and the need to connect with others and gain approval drives our need for high self-esteem.
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Define Terror management theory.
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The theory that humans cope with the fear of their own death by constructing worldviews that help to preserve their self-esteem.
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Define Self-awareness theory.
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The theory that self-focused attention leads people to notice self-discrepancies, thereby motivating either an escape from self-awareness or a change in behavior.
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Define Private self-consciousness.
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A personality characteristic of individuals who are introspective, often attending to their own inner states.
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Define Public self-consciousness.
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A personality characteristic of individuals who focus on themselves as social objects, as seen by others.
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Define Self-regulation.
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The process by which people control their thoughts, feelings, or behavior in order to achieve a personal or social goal.
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What are instances when attempts to control thoughts, feelings, and behaviors result in less ability to do so?
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Ironic processes |
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Define Implicit egotism.
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A nonconscious form of self-enhancement. |
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What are the mechanisms of self-enhancement?
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1. Self-serving beliefs
2. Self-handicapping 3. Bask in reflected glory (BIRG) 4. Downward social comparison |
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Describe self-serving beliefs.
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The tendency to attribute success to internal causes and failure to external causes.
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Define Self-handicapping.
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Behaviors designed to sabotage one’s own performance in order to provide a subsequent excuse for failure.
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Define Bask in reflected glory (BIRG).
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To increase self-esteem by associating with others who are successful.
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Term used to describe the opposite of BIRG or disassociation with those who are not successful.
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Cut off reflected failure (CORF) |
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Define Downward social comparison.
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The defensive tendency to compare ourselves with others who are worse off than we are.
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Define Self-presentation.
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Strategies people use to shape what others think of them.
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What are two ways that individuals use strategic self-presentation?
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1- Ingratiation 2- Self-promotion |
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Describe Ingratiation.
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Acts that are motivated by the desire to get along with others and be liked.
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Describe Self-promotion.
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Acts that are motivated by a desire to get ahead.
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Describe Self-verification.
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The desire to have others perceive us as we truly perceive ourselves.
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Define Self-monitoring.
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The tendency to change behavior in response to the self-presentation concerns of the situation.
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Define Social perception.
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A general term for the processes by which people come to understand one another.
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What is the term used to describe an expected sequence of events that facilitate social perception?
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Script |
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Define Mind perception.
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The process by which people attribute humanlike mental states to various animate and inanimate objects, including other people. |
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Define Nonverbal behavior.
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Behavior that reveals a person’s feeling without words, through facial expressions, body language, and vocal cues.
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What four channels provide potentially revealing information about lying?
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1. Words 2. Face 3. Body 4. Voice (most revealing) |
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Define Attribution theory.
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A group of theories that describe how people explain the causes of behavior.
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Define Personal attribution.
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Attribution to internal characteristics of an actor, such as ability, personality, mood, or effort.
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Define Situational attribution.
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Attribution to factors external to an actor, such as the task, other people, or luck.
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Define Covariation principle.
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A principle of attribution theory that holds that people attribute behavior to factors that are present when a behavior occurs and are absent when it does not.
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What are the three components that Harold Kelley used to explain Attribution theory?
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1- Consensus
2- Distinctiveness 3- Consistency |
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What are information processing rules of thumb for quick and easy thinking, but sometimes error prone?
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Cognitive heuristics |
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Define Availability heuristic.
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The tendency to estimate the likelihood that an event will occur by how easily instances of it come to mind.
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Define False consensus effect.
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The tendency for people to overestimate the extent to which others share their opinions, attributes, and behaviors.
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Define Base-rate fallacy.
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The finding that people are relatively insensitive to consensus information presented in the form of numerical base rates.
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Define Counterfactual thinking.
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The tendency to imagine alternative events or outcomes that might have occurred but did not.
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Define Fundamental attribution error.
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The tendency to focus on the role of personal causes and underestimate the impact of situations on other people’s behavior.
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Define Belief in a just world.
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The belief that individuals get what they deserve in life, on orientation that leads people to disparage victims.
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Define Impression formation.
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The process of integrating information about a person to form a coherent impression.
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Define Information integration theory |
The theory that impressions are based on:
1- Perceiver disposition and 2- A weighted average of a target person’s traits. |
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What other factors are related to impression formation?
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1- Perceiver characteristics
2- Priming 3- Target characteristics 4- Implicit personality theory 5- Primacy effect |
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Define Priming.
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The tendency for recently used or perceived words or ideas to come to mind easily and influence the interpretation of new information.
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What are the “Big Five” characteristic traits?
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1- Openness
2- Conscientiousness 3- Extraversion 4- Agreeableness 5- Neuroticicsm |
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Define Implicit personality theory.
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A network of assumptions people make about the relationships among traits and behaviors.
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Define Central traits.
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Traits that exert a powerful influence on overall impressions.
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What are the two major dimensions of central traits that people are divided on?
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1- Warmth 2- Competence |
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Define Primacy effect.
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The tendency for information presented early in a sequence to have more impact on impressions than information presented later.
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What are two reasons why the primacy effect occurs?
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1- Once an impression is formed, we pay less attention to subsequent information (stubbornness) 2- Change-of-meaning hypothesis |
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Define Need for closure.
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The desire to reduce cognitive uncertainty, which heightens the importance of first impressions.
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Describe Change-of-meaning hypothesis.
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Once an impression is formed, we interpret inconsistent information in light of that impression
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What are two ways that first impressions may survive in the face on inconsistent information?
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- Confirmation bias - Belief perseverance |
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Define Confirmation bias.
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The tendency to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies existing beliefs. |
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Define Belief perseverance.
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The tendency to maintain beliefs even after they have been discredited. |
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Define Self-fulfilling prophecy.
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The process by which one’s expectations about a person eventually lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations.
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What are the two general ways that social perception occurs?
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1- Quickly, automatic
2- Slowly, more deliberately |
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Define Racism.
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Prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s racial background, or institutional and cultural practices that promote the domination of one racial group over another.
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Define Sexism.
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Prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s gender, or institutional and cultural practices that promote the domination of one gender over another.
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Define Stereotypes.
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A belief or association that links a whole group of people with certain traits or characteristics.
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Define Prejudice.
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Negative feelings (attitude) toward persons based on their membership in certain groups.
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Define Discrimination.
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Behavior directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group.
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According to research has racial prejudice inclined or declined over the past several decades?
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Decreased |
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Define Modern racism.
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A form of prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easy to rationalize.
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Define Implicit racism.
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Racism that operates unconsciously and unintentionally.
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Define Ambivalent.
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Having both negative and positive beliefs about a subject.
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What makes gender stereotypes so distinct?
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They are both descriptive and prescriptive (they tell people what they should do or be)
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Define Ambivalent sexism.
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A form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, resentful beliefs and feelings and affectionate and chivalrous but potentially patronizing beliefs and feelings.
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Describe Hostile sexism
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Negative, resentful feeling about women’s abilities and value
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Describe Benevolent sexism
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Affectionate, chivalrous feeling
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Define Stigmatized.
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Being persistently stereotyped, perceived as deviant, and devalued in society because of membership in a particular social group or because of a particular characteristic.
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Define Stereotype threat.
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The experience of concern about being evaluated based on negative stereotypes about one’s group.
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How can stereotype threat hamper academic achievement?
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- Increased anxiety that interferes with performance
- Dismissing the domain as no longer relevant to self-esteem and identity, leading to less effort and withdrawal from school |
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Define Social categorization.
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The classification of persons into groups on the basis of common attributes.
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What is the major downside of social categorization or any categorization into major groups?
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There is often more variance within the members of the individual groups than between the separated groups as a whole.
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Define Ingroups.
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Groups with which an individual feels a sense of membership, belonging, and identity.
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Define Outgroups.
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Groups with which an individual does not feel a sense of membership, belonging or identity.
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Define Outgroup homogeneity effect.
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The tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of ingroups.
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Define Social dominance orientation.
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A desire to see one’s ingroup as dominant over other groups and a willingness to adopt cultural values that facilitate oppression over other groups.
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Define System justification theory.
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A theory that proposes that people are motivated (at least in part) to defend and justify the existing social, political, and economic conditions.
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What two dimensions vary within many group stereotypes?
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Warmth and competence |
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Define Stereotype content model.
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A model proposing that the relative status and competition between groups influence group stereotypes along the dimensions of competence and warmth.
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Who conducted the Robbers Cave study on intergroup conflict between “Eagles” and “Rattlers” were in conflict but brought together by superordinate goals.
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Muzafer Sherif (1961) |
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Define Superordinate goal.
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A shared goal that can be achieved only through cooperation among individuals or groups.
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Define Realistic conflict theory.
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The theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources.
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Define Relative deprivation.
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Feelings of discontent aroused by the belief that one fares poorly compared with others.
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Define Ingroup favoritism.
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The tendency to discriminate in favor of ingroups over outgroups.
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Define Social identity theory.
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The theory that people favor ingroups over outgroups in order to enhance their self-esteem.
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What are two basic predictions form social identity theory?
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- Threats to one’s self-esteem heighten the need for ingroup favoritism - Expressions of ingroup favoritism enhance one’s self-esteem |
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With respect to gender stereotypes what characteristics are associated with males?
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Adventurous, assertive, aggressive, independent, and task-oriented
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With respect to gender stereotypes what characteristics are associated with females?
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Sensitive, gentile, dependent, emotional, and people-oriented
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Define Social role theory.
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The theory that small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women.
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How do stereotypes distort perceptions and resist change?
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1- Confirmation biases
2- Self-fulfilling prophecies 3- Illusory correlations 4- Attributions 5- Subtyping |
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Define Illusory correlations.
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An overestimate of the association between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated.
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In regards to stereotyping, describe attributions.
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People can maintain stereotypes with attributions. If a behavior is consistent with a stereotype, we attribute it to the person. If it’s not, we attribute it to the situation
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In regards to stereotyping, describe subtyping.
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If a person violates a stereotype, and this cannot be attributed to the situation, then we create a subtype. E.g., If a woman is an excellent driver, we say she is an exception
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Define Subliminal presentation.
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A method of presenting stimuli so faintly or rapidly that people do not have any conscious awareness of having been exposed to them.
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Define Contact hypothesis.
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The theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce intergroup prejudice under certain conditions.
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For the contract hypothesis to work best, what conditions must at least be met?
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1. Equal status
2. Personal interactions (one-on-one) 3. Cooperative activities (superordinate goals) 4. Social norms (defined by relevant authorities that favor intergroup contact) |
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Define Jigsaw classroom.
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A cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group efforts.
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What is a running theme running through many of the successful interventions against stereotype threat effect?
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The individuals feel a sense of trust and safety in the situation.
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