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86 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Id
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primitive and the source of biological drives
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Ego
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rational and coping part of personality; most conscious structure
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Superego
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rules and ideals of society that have become internalized by the individual (some conscious, but mostly unconscious)
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Working Memory
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1. we select ingo that is important to us and actively process it into long term memory
2. requires active, conscious processing of incoming info to move into long term memory |
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Encoding by meaning
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-working memory interacts with long term
-meaningful context and past associations are critical |
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Encoding by images
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-easiest memories involve images
-heart of mnemonics |
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Neo-Freudians
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more emphasis on consciousness and social interactions
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Watson
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reject cognitive, focus on behavior
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Early Behaviorists
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early drive reduction theorists applied to psychoanalytic concepts
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Operant Conditioning
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environment is important
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Personality
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the underlying causes within the person of individual behavior and experience
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commonalities to all definitions of personality
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-behavior is the focus
-behaviors that seem to relate to import aspects of identity -"appear" to have an internal locus of causation |
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why can't you pit theories against each other?
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-don't agree on measuring instruments
-have different assumptions -don't agree on interpretation of actions |
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Scientific assumptions
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1. a "real" world exists (not just mental images)
2. we can develop measurement techniques 3. behaviors follow from cause-effect |
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Scientific goals
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1. objective description
2. prediction 3. control |
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careful observation/measurement
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-requires careful observations (or measuring) and recording of two variables
-as one variable changes, does another? -correlation (pos & neg/inverse) |
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3 Key Characteristics of correlation
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1. the bigger (larger magnitude), either + or -, the stronger the relationship
2. the sign (+ or -) indicates direction of variation 3. the square # tells the amount of variation that is being accounted for |
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How do we determine causation?
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Experimentation:
-@ least 2 groups -equivalent groups -results statistically interpreted |
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Reliability
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the consistency of measurement
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Internal consistency reliability
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-split half reliability (correlation b/w 2 halves of a test)
-Cronbach's coefficient alpha ---->better way to get view of overall reliability ---->avg. of all possible split-half correlations |
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Test-retest reliability
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-measure of consistency over time
-test is given once and then given again at later time |
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Sarason's Test Reliability Scale (TAS)
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-37 item questionnaire related to feelings before, during, and after examinations
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Construct Validity
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-the extent to which a test truly measures a theoretical construct
-actually a set of procedures that continues |
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Convergent Validity
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-a measure is related to what it should be related to (sometimes called concurrent validity)
ex: high test anxiety relates to achievement concerns |
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Discriminant Validity
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-a measure is NOT related to what it should NOT be related to
ex: test anxiety scores not related to IQ |
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Criterion-related Validity (Predictive)
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-the measure can predict expected outcome criteria
ex: high test anxiety related to lower test performance |
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Content Validity
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-contains items that represent the entire domain of the theoretical construct
-TAS: includes variety domains |
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Iteam Selection
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-want items to be able to result in a normal distributions
-more items help, but only up to a limit -items should intercorrelate, but not too highly |
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Controlling for bias: Acquiescence response set
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reverse some (1/2) of the items
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Controlling for bias: Social desirability response set
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-equal for each item
-"lie" scales within tests |
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Q-Sort
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-sort cards indicating characteristics
-difficult to administer and score |
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Behavioral Observations
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-started office of strategic services
-difficult and situationally specific -not used much |
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Interviews
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-very subjective
-what valid data is added is controversial -structured interview methods (rubrics) -important for therapy settings |
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Projective Tests
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-date back to 1920s (ink blot)
-time consuming to administer -response to unstructured and ambiguous stimuli -person "projects" inner motivations, etc. -difficult to administer and score |
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Case Studies
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-rich detail
-subjective judgments and descriptions -potentially limited generalization -cause and effect unclear |
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Correlational Studies
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-if just in personality, variables always correlational
-not causation -ethical, cost, or realism |
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Experimental Studies
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-lead to cause/effect conclusions
-random assignment |
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Psychoanalytic Approach
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-personality theory based on writings of Freud
-emphasizes unconscious process of mind -importance of childhood, internal focus for treatment now obvious, not radical |
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Psychoanalytic Perspective
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Freud was smart and looked at intellectual advances of his day
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Darwin
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gradual formation of characteristics
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Physics
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-conservation of energy
-the energy you start with is all you have |
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Medicine
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-external symptoms indicative of internal problem
-treatment has to address internal problem -assessment needs to be internal |
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Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory
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-born w/ all energy you will ever have
-structures of mind share/compete for this energy -gradual development of personality -behavioral problems internal/unconscious -failure to treat internal=failure to fix -behavior as only focus=symptom substitution |
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Defense Mechanisms
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adopted if direct expression of the id impulse is unacceptable to the superego or dangerous in the real world
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Denial
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primitive defense mechanism in which an individual does not acknowledge some painful or anxiety-provoking aspect of reality or of the self
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Reaction formation
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unacceptable impulse is repressed and its opposite is developed in exaggerated form
I hate sister (unconscious)-->I love sister (conscious) |
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Projection
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person's own unacceptable impulse is instead thought to belong to someone else
I want to steal-->That person is stealing |
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Displacement
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distorts the object of the drive (less primitive because b/c they know it belongs to them)
I want to hurt dad-->I want to hurt my brother |
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Rationalization
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giving plausible, but false, reasons for an action to disguise the true motives
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Regression
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revert to patterns of behavior used earlier in development
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Oral stage
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-1st psychosexual stage of development
-birth to age 1 -erogenous zone is mouth -pleasurable activities center around feeding (sucking) |
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Anal stage
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-second stage
-age 1 to 3 -desire to control his or her own bowel movements conflicts w/ the social demand for toilet training -pleasure through ability to retain feces |
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Phallic stage
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-third
-3 to 5 -desire for sexual pleasure achieved through masturbation -desire for sexual union w/ parent of opposite sex, but taboo |
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Latency
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-5 years to puberty
-relative calm for sexual instincts |
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Genital stage
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-puberty to adulthood
-develop the capacity to experience sexual satisfaction with an opposite-sex object |
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Baumeister
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-modern view
-not to avoid sexual and aggressive drive -more to protect self esteem, not contradict, but change emphasis |
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Psychoanalysis
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personality problems are result of deep inner conflicts, so real change must come through long-term, insight-oriented psychotherapy
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How do we search the unconscious?
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-free association
-dream interpretation -projective techniques (tests) -hypnosis |
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Projective Tests
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-use unstructured stimuli to which the person responds freely as they wish
-the goal is to gain access to unconscious motives and concerns |
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Draw-a-person Test
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-developed in 1949
-draw a person, then give another paper and tell to draw person of the opposite sex |
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Problem with Draw-a-person Test
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illusory correlation:
-assumed relationships that aren't present -semantic and cultural interpretations mislead |
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Consensual validation
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-sharing info. validates it
-2 people both in error, but agree -over value applied setting |
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Rorschach Inkblot
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-1921
-rapidly accepted as an "x-ray" to the mind -used as stimuli to respond to -original was 10 symmetric inkblots -argue that since it's not there, reveals something about client -look for repeating themes, strong emotion, unusual responses |
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Difficulties of Rorschach Inkblot
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-subjective
-depends on specifics of the theory one studies -reliability issues -validity issues |
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Modern revisions of Rorschach Inkblot
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-newer (Holtzman)
-limited responses -specific questions |
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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
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projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
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Why do clinicians use projective tests?
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-claim establishes rapport
-gives general idea of issues -gives idea of intellectual functioning -have been statistical improvements and limits made to interpretation |
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Subliminal Perception
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consistent with the psychoanalytic notion of unconscious
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Subliminal Threshold
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when stimuli are below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
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Subliminal Stimulation
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-presentation of stimuli presented below threshold
--priming studies seem to support something going on --Greenwald found no evidence for attitudinal or behavioral changes --therapeutic tapes during sleep don't work |
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Why study Freud?
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1. his ideas are underemphasized elsewhere
2. ideas are in popular culture and influence how we think 3. revival among research psychologists (defense mechanisms and unconscious thought) 4. still only complete theory of personality |
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Psychoanalytic Approach Limitations
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-based on limited and "biased" example
-subjective interpretations and post-hoc memories -therapy is slow, costly, and no better than others -definitive research difficult |
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Carl Jung
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-one of Freud's earliest and most favored disciples
-over time broke off -Jung revised theory too much -increased emphasis on mystical and spiritual matters |
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Jung's 3 parts of the mind/psyche
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1. The Personal Unconscious
-contains thoughts that aren't part of conscious awareness 2. The Collective Unconscious -deeper level of unconscious shared w/ rest of humanity -contains archetypes 3. Ego -conscious part of personality -embodies sense of self -similar to Freud's |
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Archetypes
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-most controversial concepts
-powerful emotional symbols -common to all people -formed from beginning of time -from ancestors' emotional responses to repeating events -predispose us to act in predictable way |
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Anima
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prototype of female held in mind of male
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Animus
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male held in mind of female
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Alfred Adler
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-1st disciple to resist Freud
-thought Freud overemphasized sex as motivating behavior -thought social interest (desire to relate positively w/ others) was equal/more important -emphasizes importance of social conditions on personality, especially one's social niche |
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Striving for Superiority
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-central core of personality
-inferiority complex (useless, don't bother trying) -superiority complex (exaggerated arrogance to compensate for feelings) |
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Organ Inferiority
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attempt to compensate for w/e we see as our weakest aspect as child (mental or physical)
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Perfection Striving
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attempting to meet fictional goals (individual's view of what they think is needed to eliminate perceived flaws)
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Karen Horney
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-rejection of Freud penis envy
-feminist neo-analytic theory -envy of masculine freedoms and privileges -adult behavior often based on efforts to overcome basic anxiety (fear acquired in childhood of being alone, helpless, insecure) |
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Anna Freud
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-bridge to modern conceptions
-attempted psychoanalytic treatment on youngs/teens -carefully examined their relationships with parents -systematically organized defense mechanisms of Freud |
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Melanie Klein: Objects Relation Theory
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-most active area of psychoanalytic thinking at present
-emotionally important people are called objects -how do children think and represent others in their minds -relations with others of utmost importance -developed "play therapy" -people repeat important psychological patterns in new relationships |
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Neo-analytic Therapy
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-insight into inner motives is key
-ego is central, so less concern with unconscious motivation -no precise statements of procedures that apply to all therapists |
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Westen conclusions
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-many important thoughts and feelings seem to be outside our awareness
-childhood events have strong influence of personality of adults (but so do other things) -relationships formed with significant others establish patterns that repeat with new people -move from an immature, self-centered state to a more regulated relationship-oriented one |
