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260 Cards in this Set
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In this type of sampling, researchers seek representative samples by choosing various time intervals for their observations.
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What is time sampling?
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In this type of sampling, researchers observe behavior in many different circumstances, locations, and conditions.
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What is situation sampling?
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These are the observations that a researcher actually sees happen.
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What are direct observations?
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These are the observations that a researcher does not see, by rather infers that the observations happened because of evidence from the results of the behavior, like artifacts.
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What are indirect observations?
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This form of observations can be broken down into two main types, naturalistic and intervention.
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What are the two main types of direct observations?
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In this type of sampling, researchers seek representative samples by choosing various time intervals for their observations.
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What is time sampling?
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In this type of sampling, researchers observe behavior in many different circumstances, locations, and conditions.
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What is situation sampling?
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These are the observations that a researcher actually sees happen.
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What are direct observations?
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These are the observations that a researcher does not see, by rather infers that the observations happened because of evidence from the results of the behavior, like artifacts.
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What are indirect observations?
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This form of observations can be broken down into two main types, naturalistic and intervention.
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What are the two main types of direct observations?
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This form of direct observations can be further broken down into three main categories, participant, field experiment, and structured.
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What are the three types of intervention observation?
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These observations occur when the observer interacts directly with the subject.
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What are participant observations?
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These observations occur when researchers manipulate variables in a natural setting.
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What are field experiment observations?
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These observations occur when the type of observation that a researcher wants to accomplish is not a part of participant observations or field experiments.
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What are structured observations?
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The two main types of this form of observations are physical traces and archival records.
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What are the two main types of indirect observations?
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This form of observations can be further broken down into traces and products.
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What are the two main types of physical traces, a form of indirect observations?
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This form of observations occurs when researchers evidence something that has been used (like forensics) as an explanation for something that has occurred.
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What are traces, a form of indirect observations?
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This form of observations occurs when researchers evidence things that have been made for taking note hat something has occurred, like in archeology.
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What are archival records, a form of indirect observations?
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Researchers can either make records, when conducting this type of experimental design, by making comprehensive or selected records.
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What are the two ways to record behavior?
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This type of recording occurs when researchers want to record a more or less faithful reproduction of the behavior, like videotaping it. This means that observers want to describe all of the behavior in a given situation.
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What are comprehensive recordings?
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This type of recording occurs when researchers only want to focus on one or a few pre-specified behaviors and then take records about the one or few behaviors. The behavior that gets pre-specified is often based on the observers’ operational definition.
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What are selected recordings?
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This is the idea that the more people there are, and then the less likely one person is going to go get help.
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What is the bystander effect?
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This experiment determines how likely someone is going to stop and help someone.
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What is the Good Samaritan experiment?
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This type of record keeping occurs when observers make written descriptions, audiotapes, or videotapes of behavior as it originally occurred.
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What are narrative records, a form of comprehensive records?
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The pros of this type of record keeping are that observers always have complete records to study, naturalistic, and classify/code behavior. Conversely, the cons of this record keeping are that it is time-consuming, difficulty coding, and at times, expensive.
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What are the pros and cons of narrative records?
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The pros of this type of recording are that it is clear and fast. Nonetheless, the cons are that a researcher may miss some other important behavior that they did not expect and they cannot go back and recount something that they may have missed.
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What are the pros and cons of selective records?
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This is a phenomenon that occurs when people fail to notice changes in their environment.
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What is change blindness?
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This scale puts information into discrete categories.
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What is the nominal scale?
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This scale puts information in rankings, but the difference between the points is not constant (i.e. we do not know how far a part things are).
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What is the ordinal scale?
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In this scale, there is a constant difference between points (we do know how far apart things are).
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What is the interval scale?
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In this scale, interval rules are included plus there is an absolute zero.
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What is the ratio scale?
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This type of analysis can be broken down into two categories, qualitative or quantitative.
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What are the two types of data analysis?
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Knowing this part of psychology research is important because though stats programs will run tests, it is up to the human to apply critical thinking and put meaning to these tests. Also, psychologists need to know this information because they need to know what techniques they need to use in order to correctly carry out an experiment.
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What is the importance of knowing the different scales that are used in psychology research?
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Psychologists use chi-squared tests or logistic regressions to analyze this type of data.
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What are the statistic tests that are used to analyze nominal data?
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Psychologists use data analysis techniques like, t-tests, ANOVAs, regression, etc. to analyze this type of data.
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What are the statistic tests are used to analyze interval or ratio data?
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This type of data analysis provides a numerical summary of the observations. It uses different scales, especially interval or ratio. It is also the preferred type of data analysis.
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What is quantitative data analysis?
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This type of data analysis provides a verbal summary of the observations. It may use nominal or ordinal scale. It may not use a scale at all (most common).
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What is qualitative data analysis?
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This type of statistics is a part of qualitative analysis. It describes the sample gender, ethnicities, and other frequencies. Remember, it describes the sample and not the population.
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What is descriptive statistics?
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This type of statistic is a part of qualitative analysis. It measures proportions or counts and it is used to analyze nominal scales.
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What is relative frequency?
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These three figures are all a part of qualitative analysis. They are measures of central tendency and they are used to analyze interval or ratio scales.
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What are the mean, the median, and the mode?
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These two figures are both a part of qualitative analysis. They are measures of dispersion (variability) and they are used to analyze interval or ratio scales.
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What is variance and standard deviation?
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This type of statistics is used to test for statistically meaningful differences in the data. That is, this form of statistics is used to take what a researcher sees in a sample and apply those statistics to the population. These statistics is how researchers are able to generalize.
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What are inferential statistics?
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To improve this type of research, observers incorporate interobserver reliability and solid operational definitions.
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What are the two methods to improve the reliability of observational research?
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This type of reliability is used to improve the reliability of observational research. It is the degree to which two independent observers viewing the same event agree on the observation.
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What is interobserver reliability?
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For these scales, interobserver reliability is calculated by (# agreements/total #) x100. That percentage must be at least 85% to be considered reliable.
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What is the formula and the technique to calculate interobserver reliability for nominal scales?
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For these scales, interobserver reliability is considered reliable if the correlation coefficient of r is at least 0.80.
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What is needed for interobserver reliability to be considered reliable for ordinal or interval-ratio scales?
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The purpose of this type of analysis is to use the grounded theory method. The method is when researchers seek to develop a theory about behavior that is grounded in observations from narrative records.
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What is the purpose of qualitative analysis?
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This method is used when researchers seek to develop a theory about behavior that is grounded in observations from narrative records.
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What is the grounded theory method?
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This method has the following three main steps: data reduction, data display, and draw and verify conclusions?
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What are the three main steps in the grounded theory method?
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In this step of the grounded theory method, researchers code or categorize observations.
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What is data reduction, the first step in the grounded theory method?
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In this step of the grounded theory method, researchers graph, chart, networks, or make other visual displays of the data.
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What is data display, the second step in the grounded theory method?
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In this step of the grounded theory method, researchers develop a logical chain of evidence and a coherent theory—telling a story that fits with the evidence.
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What is draw and verify conclusions, the third step in the grounded theory method?
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This is a form of observational bias. It occurs when there are demand characteristics: cues or other information that might guide subjects to believe that the research expects them to behave in a certain way. It can also occur when subjects think or expect there to be a “trick” in the research.
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What is reactivity?
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These are cues or other information that might guide subjects to believe that the research expects them to behave in a certain way.
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What are demand characteristics?
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Researchers avoid biases in this type of experiment design by using disguised observations and adapt subjects to presence of the observer.
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What are the two ways that researchers limit observational biases?
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This occurs when there is systematic errors in observation that result from an observer’s expectations.
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What is observer bias?
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This type of bias occurs when behavior in subjects is caused by observer bias.
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What are expectancy effects?
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The two goals of this kind of research are description (like being able to tell peoples’ opinions, feelings, preferences, etc.) and prediction (like in using the descriptions to estimate future behavior).
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What are the two goals of correlation research?
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This term is used to describe how close to measures of the same people, events, or things vary together or go together.
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What is a correlation?
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Psychologists use this kind of research design in order to assess relationships among naturally occurring variables.
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What is correlation research?
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This term is used in correlation research. It determines the strength and direction of the relationship between two naturally occurring variables.
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What is the correlation coefficient?
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This is the most important phrase in regards to this type of research: “Correlation does not equal causation.”
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What is the most important phrase in regards to correlation designs?
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In this type of research designs, there are three possible things that could be occurring: “A causes B. B causes A. C causes A and B.”
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What are the three possible things that could be happening, between the variables, in correlation designs?
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This occurs in psychology research when the independent variable and a different, potential independent variable are allowed to covary. That is, this term is present when experimental and control groups differ on a factor other than the independent variable.
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What is a confounding variable?
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Researchers establish causation by showing that one variable came before another (you wouldn’t say that cancer causes smoking, would you?).
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What is the logic that researchers use in order to eliminate the confusion over A causing B or B causing A?
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This term is used in correlation research, but it has a limitation. It cannot capture nonlinear relationships. It can only be used to describe linear relationships.
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What is the one limitation of using the correlation coefficient?
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This form of reliability gives the same survey to same person at 2 different times and that person should score similarly (not looking for exact matches, just relative matching).
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What is test-retest reliability?
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This form of reliability tests whether all items within a survey measure the same thing. In other words, it measures the questions accuracy at testing for the item that the researchers want to understand. For example, a survey that measures the level of depression should not have any questions about the economy.
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What is internal consistency reliability?
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This is the first rule of thumb in testing for this type of reliability: More items on a test means higher (of this type of) reliability.
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What is the rule of thumb for internal reliability, in regards to number of items that are in a test?
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This is the second rule of thumb in testing for this type of reliability: More variability in the variable being measured within your sample the higher reliability (of this type of reliability).
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What is the rule of thumb for internal reliability, in regards to how much internal variability that is in a test?
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This term is used in correlation research, but it has a limitation. It cannot capture nonlinear relationships. It can only be used to describe linear relationships.
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What is the one limitation of using the correlation coefficient?
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This form of reliability gives the same survey to the same person at 2 different times and that person should score similarly (not looking for exact matches, just relative matching).
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What is test-retest reliability?
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This form of reliability tests whether all items within a survey measure the same thing. In other words, it measures the questions accuracy at testing for the item that the researchers want to understand. For example, a survey that measures the level of depression should not have any questions about the economy.
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What is internal consistency reliability?
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This is the first rule of thumb in testing for this type of reliability: More items on a test means higher (of this type of) reliability.
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What is the rule of thumb for internal reliability, in regards to number of items that are in a test?
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This is the second rule of thumb in testing for this type of reliability: More variability in the variable being measured within your sample the higher reliability (of this type of reliability).
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What is the rule of thumb for internal reliability, in regards to how much variability that is in a test?
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This is the third rule of thumb in testing for this type of reliability: to eliminate biases, test administrators administer all tests in the same type of environment because they do not want any other way for people to score differently on the test.
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What is the rule of thumb for internal reliability, in regards to the environment that is used when administering the tests?
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This is a test that measures how items correlate with one another. It is often used to measure internal reliability?
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What is Cronbach’s Alpha?
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This test variable, which measures internal reliability, can be artificially inflated by asking the same question repeatedly. A better assessment choice is IRT.
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What is the way that Cronbach’s Alpha can be artificially inflated?
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This test of validity determines whether the survey measures the construct that it’s supported to measure.
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What is construct validity?
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This test of validity determines the degree that 2 different measures of the same construct agree. It is a part of the multimethod approach.
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What is convergent validity?
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This test of validity determines the extent to which the survey doesn’t measure what it’s not supposed to measure.
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What is discriminate validity?
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This term is used when describing validity. It is a latent variable or an abstract idea that needs to be operationally defined.
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What is a construct?
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This term describes how well a measurement assesses what it is intended to measure.
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What is validity?
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These are variables that describe the characteristics of the sample, like age, gender, ethnicity, etc.
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What are demographic variables?
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Questionnaires or survey as the most common form of this kind of research.
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What is the most common form of correlation research?
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These types of tests are mainly used to assess preferences and attitudes.
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What are questionnaires or surveys used to determine?
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In both of these two tests, confounding variables can arise. For example, the money that people have can be a confounding variable that limits their preferences. People can also be limited by their geographically location, which can then limit their preferences too (these are just two examples, there are many more).
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What are the confounding variables that arise in questionnaires and surveys?
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This is the set of all possible cases of interest. It is dependent upon what you are investigating.
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What is population?
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This is the subset of the population that is used to represent the population on some meaningful characteristic.
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What is sample?
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This is when a sample has the same particular characteristics as its population.
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What is representativeness?
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This is a sample that differs systemically from the population.
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What is biased sample?
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This is the random variation that occurs because all samples are not exactly the same. This type of error is acceptable and cannot be entirely removed from the data.
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What is sampling error?
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This type of error occurs when there is pattern in the differences that occur in the dependent variable and this pattern is not due to the effects of the independent variable. It can also occur when there is pattern in how the sample differs from the population.
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What is systemic error?
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This statistical operation is the difference on some measure or characteristic between the sample and its population. It is a measure of sampling error so it’s random.
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What is the margin of error?
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This statistical operation is heavily influence by the sample size. As the sample size (n) increases, sampling error decreases.
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What is the thing that heavily influences the confidence interval?
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This is a form of bias. It occurs when researchers use selection procedures that over-represent or under-represent parts of the population. For example, researchers using psychology students in their studies.
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What is selection bias?
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This is a form of bias. It occurs when not all sample respondents complete the survey due to a common reason. For example, when giving a test to people that do poorly in math, the test takers may quit the test early, which makes it seem as though they did much worse on the test.
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What is response bias?
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This is a way to take a sample. It occurs when there is no guarantee that every member of a population is included for selection and there is no way to estimate the probability that the sample represents the population. Researchers usually use this sampling technique for convenience like using the population that is available (i.e. college students).
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What is nonprobability sampling?
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This is a way to take a sample. It occurs when every member of a population can be selected or there is a way to estimate the probability that the sample represents the population. It allows for better generalizations to the population.
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What is probability sampling?
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This form of sampling is where every member of a population has an equal chance of being in the sample.
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What is simple random sampling?
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This form of sampling is where the population is divided into subsets and researchers randomly draw from each subset to form their sample.
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What is stratified random sampling?
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This form of sampling is where one or more samples are drawn at one time.
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What is cross-sectional sampling?
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This form of sampling is where researchers use different cross-sectional samples over different time points.
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What is successive independent sampling?
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This form of sampling is where researchers take measurements from the exact same sample at multiple time points.
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What is longitudinal sampling?
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This sampling method has the following pros: good for descriptive and predictive goals and it’s easy and fast.
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What are the pros of cross-sectional sampling?
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This sample method has the following cons: it cannot assess change over time in a person or population.
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What are the cons of cross-sectional sampling?
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This method of sampling has the following pros: it can assess change over time in a society or population (descriptive goal).
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What are the pros of successive independent sampling?
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This form of sampling has the following cons: it cannot asses change over time for an individual, it takes time, and problems can arise if each sample isn’t take from the same population (which is called non-comparable samples).
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What are the cons of successive independent sampling?
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This form of sampling error occurs when researchers take successive independent samples from different populations. It causes the results to be skewed because it does not show how a population changes over time. Instead, it incorrectly seems like a population has changed over time, but in fact, the populations are two different may already have two different views on topics.
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What are non-comparable samples?
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This sampling method has the following cons: it cannot target causes of change, respondent attrition, subjects may try to make their answers as consistent as possible, and subjects may get better at the assessments because of practice.
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What are the cons of longitudinal sampling?
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This form of sampling error occurs when subjects drop out. It is only a problem if it is systematic.
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What is respondent attrition?
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The difference between this research design and its close neighbor, is that this research design has the ability to randomly assign subjects to conditions.
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What is the difference between experiments and quasi-experiments?
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When researchers perform this specific research design, they manipulate or control one or more variables, and then measure the consequences on some other variable(s).
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What is the method that researches use in experiments?
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This is the variable(s) that the experimenter manipulates or controls.
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What is an independent variable?
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In an experiment, this is a group(s) that receives treatment.
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What is an experimental condition(s)?
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In an experiment, this is the group that does not receive treatment.
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What is an experimental control condition?
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In an experiment, this is the outcome variable. It is the one that the experimenter measures to assess the effect of the independent variable.
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What is a dependent variable?
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The key feature of this research design is its use of control.
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What is the key feature of experiments?
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This operational term is used in experiments. It is the investigation of the effect of various factors one at a time.
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What is control?
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This research design is meant to establish causation. In other words, this research design attempts to answer why people act, fell, or think that way that they do.
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What is the purpose of experiments?
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This research design attempts to determine causation by using control. In other words, the only systematic way that the groups or levels of the dependent variable differ should be because of the independent variable.
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What is the method that experiments use to determine causation?
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In experiments, this operational term determines if researchers are able to state, in a fairly confident manner, that the differences in the dependent variable are due to the differences in the independent variable.
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What is the definition internal validity in experiments?
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a. This term differs in experimental and correlational tests. In experimental tests, it determines whether or not the researcher is able to state, in a fairly confident manner, the differences in the dependent variable are due to the differences in the independent variable. On the other hand, in correlational designs, it determines whether or not the researcher is measuring what they think that they are measuring.
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What is the difference between internal validity in experiments and correlational tests?
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In experiments, researchers use random assignment to eliminate this form of error.
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What is the method that researchers use to eliminate confounds in experiments?
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This is a necessary condition when making a cause/effect statement. It is used to establish a relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable. Correlational design can determine this condition.
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What is covariation?
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This is a necessary condition when making a cause/effect statement. It is used to say that the cause has to precede the effect. That is, the independent variable must happen before the dependent variable.
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What is time-order relationship?
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This is a necessary condition when making a cause/effect statement. It occurs when researchers eliminate plausible alternative explanations for a behavior in order to eliminate confounds.
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What is the purpose of eliminating confounds in experiments?
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The two main types of this form of research design are independent groups and repeated measures.
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What are the two main types of experiments?
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This is the type of experiments where different people are in each condition (level of the independent variable).
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What are independent groups, a type of experiments?
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This is the type of experiments where the same people are in each condition (they get all the levels of the independent variable).
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What is repeated measures, a type of experiments?
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This is a form of independent group designs. Independent designs are a subset of experiment designs. This form occurs when are randomly assigned to conditions.
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What are random groups?
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This is a form of independent group designs. Independent designs are a subset of experiment designs. This form matches subjects between groups using a pretest or some variable.
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What are matched groups?
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Disease is caused by Deficiency of ADAMTS 13?
explain the rest of the pathophys |
**TTP**
AdamTS13 is a degradation enzyme: loss of degradation of vWF MULTIMERS. MULTIMERS cause increased platelet aggregation and THRMOBISIS and causes a low platelet count |
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This is a method that researchers use to eliminate confounding variables. It occurs when all groups engage in similar tasks or exposures. For example, researchers may give one group a placebo.
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What is holding conditions constant?
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This is a method that researchers use to eliminate confounding variables. It occurs when researchers assign subjects so that the different groups do not have any systematic differences. It ensures that groups are equal or average.
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What is balancing?
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The pros of this subset of experiments are that a researcher needs fewer participants, it has more power—easier to detect smaller effects, and it is convenient and efficient.
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What are the pros of repeated measures, a subset of experiments?
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This subset of experiments has the following cons: practice effects, participants could get better at performing the tasks, participants could get worse at performing the certain tasks, differential transfer, and it cannot study individual differences.
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What are the cons of repeated measures, a subset of experiments?
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This is an effect that occurs when subjects change as they are repeatedly tested. They could get better or worse at the tasks. It commonly happens in repeated measure experiments and longitudinal correlation tests.
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What are practice effects?
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This is a type of error that occurs when the effects of manipulation for a condition persist and influence performance in later conditions. It commonly happens in repeated measure experiments.
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What is differential transfer?
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This is a method that researchers use to limit practice effects and differential transfer. It occurs when researchers change the order of the independent variable levels for different subjects.
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What is counterbalancing?
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This type of research design has the following main goals: description and prediction.
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What are the main goals met by correlational research?
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In correlational research these correlation does not always equal this term before of the following reasons: A can cause B, B can cause A, or C can cause both A and B to occur.
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What is the reason why correlation ≠ causation?
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In this type of research design the following three things could be occurring between two variables: A causes B, B causes A, or C causes both A and B.
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What are the 3 things that could be happening with respect to a correlation between two different variables?
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This term is an alternative hypothesis to explain why two variables correlate. It occurs when the independent variable of interest and a different, potential independent variable, are allowed to covary.
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What is a confound?
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This term is a problem in research designs because it causes the experiment and control groups differ on a factor other than the independent variable, which then causes the results of the experiment to not be interpretable. If this occurs, the experiment lacks internal validity.
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What is the reason why a confound is a problem?
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Some ways to remove these from experiments include holding conditions constant and balancing.
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What are some ways to remove confounds from research?
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This is a way to control confounding variables. It occurs when researchers keep every condition, other than the independent variable, the same in order to limit confounding variables.
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What is holding the conditions constant?
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This is a way to control confounding variables. This technique insures that the average of participants is found in each sample group. An example of this technique is a simple random sample.
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What is balancing?
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This is an approach used in research. It occurs when researchers use many designs and measures that all converge to a common finding that aims establish causation.
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What is the multimethod approach?
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This approach to establishing causation is useful because no single research method can answer all the questions psychologists have about behavior and processes.
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What is the reason why the multimethod approach is useful?
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This term is a measurement that determines the direction and strength of a relationship between two variables.
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What is a correlation coefficient?
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This term is a measurement that measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.
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What is it that the correlation coefficient measures?
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If this term is -1 then that means that there is a strong relationship in a negative direction. If this term is 1 then that means that there is a strong relationship in a positive direct. And the relationship can fall in-between both these numbers.
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What is it that the correlation coefficient tells us about strength and direction?
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The key assuming we use when using this term is that the relationship between the two variables is linear.
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What is a key assumption we make when using a correlation coefficient?
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The reason why we should do this process first when analyzing the data is that we should whether or not the relationship between two variables is linear or nonlinear.
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What is the reason why we should plot our data first?
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This term is when researchers administer the measure to a large sample of people at two different times.
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What is test-retest reliability?
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This term deems a correlational research design to be reliable if the measure yields similar (consistent) results each time it is taken.
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What is it that must happen for a correlation to be confirmed reliable by test-retest reliability?
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This measures whether or not an experiment can confidently say that the independent variable caused differences between groups on the dependent variable.
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What is internal reliability?
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This measurement can be increased by having more items on a test, by having more variability in the variable being measured within the sample, and by having the test administered in the same environment each time.
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What is it that can increase internal reliability?
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This term is commonly measured by Cronbach’s Aplha test. A higher Cronbach alpha score means that there is higher validity.
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What is a common measure of internal reliability?
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This term is a measurement of whether or not the survey measures the construct that it’s supposed to measure.
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What is construct validity?
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This is a measurement of the degree that 2 different measures of the same construct agree. It is a part of the multimehod approach.
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What is convergent validity?
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This term is a latent variable—an abstract idea that needs to be operationally defined.
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What is a construct?
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This is a measurement that determines whether or not the survey does not measure what it is not supposed to measure.
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What is discriminate validity?
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These are variables that describe characteristics of a sample.
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What are demographic variables?
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These variables, the ones that describe characteristics of a sample, are usually independent variables because you can’t really change them or have a way to manipulate them (though there is a way to change or manipulate these variables).
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What is usually a demographic variable, an independent variable or a dependent variable?
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This is the set of all possible cases of interest. It is dependent upon what you are investigating.
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What is a population?
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This is a subset of the population used to represent the population on some meaningful characteristic.
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What is a sample?
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This is when a sample has the same particular characteristics as its population.
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What is representativeness?
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We want this type of sample because they are “like” the larger population of people, settings, and conditions from which they are drawn.
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What is the reason why we want to perform a representative sample?
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This is a form of error. It occurs when the random variation that occurs because all samples are not exactly the same. This type of error is acceptable and cannot be entirely removed from data.
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What is sampling error?
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We are more concerned with this type of error than random differences because when this error occurs, there is a pattern to the differences in the dependent variable not due to effects of the independent variable or there is a pattern in how the sample differs from the population.
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What are the reasons why we are concerned about systematic differences versus random differences?
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The difference between this type of significance and statistical significance is that this determines whether or not the difference between two groups is significant in a real world sense. Unlike statistical significance, which merely means that the independent variable produces a reliable effect on the dependent variable (i.e. it doesn’t happen by chance alone).
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What is the difference between practical significance and statistical significance?
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We use the “effect size” statistic to measure this type of statistic.
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What are the usual measures that we use for practical significance?
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We use confidence intervals and null hypotheses to measure this type of statistic.
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What are the usual measures that we use for statistical significance?
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This is a form of bias. It occurs when researchers use selection procedures that over-represent or under-represent parts of the population (like in that Truman example, where the polls took samples from a biased sample and said that the other guy would won instead).
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What is selection bias?
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This is a form of bias. It occurs when not all samples respondents complete the survey due to a common reason. For example, people that are poor at math may not finish the math test—making them miss all of the final problems, which will just make their score look worse than other samples.
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What is response bias?
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Both of these two types of sampling biases are concerns because they are both systemic sampling errors.
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What are the reasons why both selection and response biases are concerns?
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The difference between this type of sampling and nonprobability sampling is that this type of sampling could select for every member of a population or have a way to estimate the probability that the sample represents the population. Unlike this sampling technique, nonprobability sampling cannot guarantee these two aspects.
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What is the difference between probability sampling and nonprobability sampling?
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This is a form of sampling where every member of a population could be selected or there is a way to estimate the probability.
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What is probability sampling?
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This is a form of sampling where there is not guarantee that every member of a population is included for selection and there is no way of estimating the probability.
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What is nonprobability sampling?
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This type of sampling can be broken down into the following sub-categories: simple random sampling and stratified random sampling.
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What are the two types of probability sampling?
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This type of sampling occurs whenever member of a population has an equal chance of being in the sample. It is often unrealistic because of population size and distribution and researchers resources.
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What is simple random sampling?
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This type of sampling divides the population into subsets and randomly draws from each subset. It is more user-friendly to the researcher.
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What is stratified random sampling?
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Simple random sampling differs from the other type of random sampling because it is a little more unrealistic in that it hopes to get a sample that represents every member of a population. On the other hand, the other type of sampling is merely more convenient because it picks from a sample that is readily availably even though that sample may not best represent the entire population.
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What are the ways in how simple random sampling differs from stratified random sampling?
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The 3 types of these designs are correlational, experimental, and complex.
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What are the 3 research designs?
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The three types of these are different. Correlational aims to describe and predict, but it cannot understand. Experiments aim to understand because they hope to explain causation, which also in turn allows them to describe and predict. Finally, complex, has the same goals as experiments, but complex experiments aim to look at the interaction between 2 or more independent variables that experiments cannot determine.
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What are the ways in how the 3 research designs are they different?
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This is a correlation research design. It takes one or more samples at the same time. For example, when trying to assess the average number of words in a child’s vocabulary, a researcher would use this research design to take samples from 30 4-year olds, 5-year olds, and 6-year olds at the same time.
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What is cross sectional research design?
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This research design has the following pros and cons. Pros: good for description and predictive goals, and easy and fast. Cons: cannot assess change over time in a person or a population.
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What are the pros and cons of cross sectional correlational design?
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This is a correlational research design. It uses different cross-sectional samples over different time points. For example, taking a measure of teen pregnancy rates over a 15 year time period. While performing this research design it is imperative to sample the same population or your results will be skewed.
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What are successive independent samples?
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This correlational research design has the following pros and cons. Pros: can assess change in an individual over time, can also be used to assess implementation of interventions (turns it into an experimental or quasi-experimental design. Cons: can’t target causes of changes, respondent attrition: people drop out—only a problem if it is systematic, subjects trying to be consistent rather than truthful or show other reactivity patterns, and subjects can practice at research deigns—thus doing better than otherwise expected=skewed results.
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What are the pros and cons of the longitudinal correlational design?
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This is a correlational research design. It uses the same sample measured at multiple time points. For example, measuring the growth of babies until they reach adulthood.
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What is longitudinal sampling?
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This correlational research design has the following pros and cons. Pros: Can assess changes over time in a society or population (descriptive goal). Cons: cannot assess change over time for n individual, takes time, problems arise if each sample isn’t take from the same population—called noncomparable samples.
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What are the pros and cons of the success independent sample correlational research design?
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This research design’s main goal is to establish causation. In other words, it wants to figure out “why” people act, feel, or think the way that they do.
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What is the primary goal of experimental research?
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The difference between this type of research design and a quasi-experiment is that this research design has the ability to randomly assign subjects to conditions, unlike quasi-experiments.
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What is the thing that makes a true experiment different from a quasi-experiment?
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This type of research has the following characteristics: in it, researchers manipulate or control one or more variables, then measure the consequences on some other variable(s).
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What are the main characteristics of experiments?
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This type of variable is the one that the experimenter manipulates or controls. It can have different levels or conditions, and the group that receives this treatment is called the experimental condition group. Conversely, the group that does not receive treatment is called the control condition group.
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What is an independent variable?
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This is the variable in an experiment that is the outcome variable. In other words, it is the variable that the experimenter measures to assess the effect of the independent variable.
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What is a dependent variable?
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The key of these research designs is control.
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What is the key feature of experimental designs?
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Experiments commonly achieve this key feature by eliminating confounds and by using random assignment.
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What is the most common way control in experiments is achieved?
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This is a form of validity. It is when we are able to state fairly confidently that the differences in the dependent variable are due to differences in the independent variable.
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What is internal validity?
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For an experiment to have this form of validity the following three conditions must be meet: 1) Covariation 2) Time-order relationship 3) Eliminating plausible alternative explanations.
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What are the 3 necessary conditions to meet for internal validity?
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This is a necessary condition for internal validity. It establishes a relationship between the independent and dependent variable. You could use a correlational design to do this—example of multimethod approach.
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What is covariation?
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This is a necessary condition of internal validity. It states that the cause has to precede the effect (IV before DV). For example, you would not say that cancer causes smoking, would you? You would instead say that smoking causes cancer.
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What is time-order relationship?
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This is a necessary condition of internal validity. It eliminates confounds.
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What is eliminating plausible alternative explanations?
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We exert this type of key feature in experiments by holding conditions constant and by balancing.
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What are the ways in that we exert control in experiments?
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The difference between this type of experimental measurement and repeated measures is that this type measures different people for each condition, but repeated measures takes measurements on the same people for each condition.
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What is the difference between independent measures and repeated measures?
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This is a type of experiment design. It uses different people for each condition (level of IV).
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What are independent groups?
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This is a type of experiment design. It uses the same people for each condition (everyone gets all levels of IV).
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What are repeated measures?
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This type of experimental design can be broken down into the following 3 sub-categories: random groups, matched groups, and natural groups.
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What are the 3 types of independent measures?
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This form of independent experimental design takes subjects and places them in randomly assigned conditions.
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What are random groups?
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This form of independent experimental design is used to randomly assign subjects to conditions.
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What are random groups used to accomplish?
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This form of independent experimental design matches subjects between groups using a pretest or some variable.
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What are matched groups?
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This form of independent experimental design is used to match subjects based on a pretest or other variable and once subjects are paired up then they are randomly assigned to conditions.
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What are matched groups used to accomplish?
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This is a form of independent experimental design where subjects come into an experiment already in one level of the independent variable.
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What are natural groups?
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This form of independent experimental group design is used when it would be unethical or impractical to randomly assign subjects to groups.
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What are the circumstances when natural groups are used?
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This form of experimental design has the following pros. Pros: do not have to worry about groups in different conditions differing—same people, need fewer participants, more power—easier to detect smaller effects, convenient and efficient.
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What are the pros of repeated measures?
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This form of experimental design has the following cons. Cons: practice effects—subjects change as they are repeatedly tested, they could get better or worse as test goes on—cannot study individual differences, differential transfer—the effects of manipulation for a condition persist and influence performance in later conditions.
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What are the cons of repeated measures?
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This is a form of error that pops up in repeated measures. It is when the effects of manipulation for a condition persist and influence performance in later conditions.
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What is differential transfer?
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The two designs of this presented study are natural groups and a media portrayal of this female condition.
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What are the designs of the two PMS studies I presented?
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The things that these two studies illustrated are how an experimental design actually works and how that differs from regular old stereotyping.
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What are the things that the two PMS studies illustrate?
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This is a way to limit confounds in experiments. It is when researchers change the order of the independent variables for different subjects. By doing so, it helps to eliminate target effects and differential transfer—two forms of experimental biases.
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What is counterbalancing?
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This technique is used in experiments in order to limit confounds like target effects and differential transfer.
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What are the reasons why counterbalancing is used?
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This is a form of validity that measures the ability that an experiment’s findings can be generalized from the sample to the population.
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What is external validity?
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The three stages of performing this task are 1) check the data 2) summarize the data 3) confirm results.
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What are the 3 stages of analysis?
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During this stage of data analysis, we make sure the numbers make sense, like checking for any outliers, frequency distribution, or any skewed patterns in responses.
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What is it that we do in the “check data” stage of data analysis?
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In this stage of analyzing the data, researchers report descriptive stats, measures of central tendency, and measures of dispersion (look at notes to see all of the details of each section).
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What is it that we do in the “summarize the data” stage of analyzing data?
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During this stage of analyzing the data, we use inferential statistics to take what our sample tells us and see if we can generalize it to the population.
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What is it that we do in the “confirm the results” stage of analyzing data?
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This descriptive statistic tells us if our data is normal, positively skewed, or negatively skewed.
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What are the things that frequency distributions tell us?
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These are response that that do not accurately measure the independent variable’s effect on the dependent variable. They are problems because they can seriously skew the results, making conclusions invalid, and they might hide any real effects.
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What are outliers?
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When we encounter these variables, we remove them so that they do not inappropriately influence our descriptive statistics.
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What are the steps that we do when we encounter outliers?
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When we do this to the mean of a distribution, it moves the distribution to the right on the x-axis.
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What are the things that happen when we increase the mean of a distribution?
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When we do this to the distribution, it moves the distribution to the left on the x-axis.
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What are the things that happen when we decrease the mean of the distribution?
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When we do this to the variance, it makes the curve flatter and it makes the curve have longer curves.
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What are the things that happen when we increase the variance of a distribution?
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When we do this to the variance of distribution, it makes the curve pointer and it makes the curve have shorter tails.
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What are the things that happen when we decrease the variance of distribution?
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This descriptive statistic tells us that a certain percentage of the sample means will contain the population sample mean.
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What is a confidence interval?
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This descriptive statistic tells us the probably range that the population mean lies within.
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What is it that a confidence interval tells us?
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If this descriptive statistic is 0, then it means that there is a possibility that there is no difference between the sample mean and the population mean. However, it does not mean that there really is no difference between the sample mean and the population mean—just that we can’t say they aren’t the same.
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What are the ways in that we interpret confidence intervals?
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This is a descriptive statistic that determines whether or not the results are statistically significance. That is, it determines if the observed means in the experiment is larger than would be expected by chance if the null hypothesis is true.
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What is null hypothesis testing?
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This descriptive statistic tells us whether or not the results are statistically significant.
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What are the things that a null hypothesis tells us?
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In general to use this descriptive statistic, you need to have a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis and then you either reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis.
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What are the steps to use a null hypothesis (generally, no need to memorize them, but be able to recognize them)?
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This is a form of error. It occurs when we say that the null hypothesis is false, when it is really true.
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What is a Type I error?
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This is a form of error. It occurs when we say that the null hypothesis is true, when it is really false.
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What is a Type II error?
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This type of error is much more of a concern than Type II error because it can cause you to talk drugs that cause horrible side effects all for the sake of getting better, but in fact the drugs don’t do jack shit.
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What is considered to be more of a concern, Type I or Type II error?
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Every good type of this research design has the following things in common: 1) internal validity 2) reliability 3) sensitivity 4) external validity.
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What are the four things a good experiment needs?
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When this type of research design tries to get all four things that it requires to be considered “good” it comes at a compromise because increasing internal validity decreases external validly (as controls increase, generalizeability decreases).
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What is the problem with the fours things that a good experiments need?
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The four threats to this form of validity are as follows: 1) intact groups 2) extraneous variables 3) subject loss 4) expectancies.
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What are the 4 threats to internal validity for independent measures?
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This type of group is a threat to internal validity. They are groups that formed before the experiment but not though random assignment.
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What are intact groups?
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This is a form of error that affects internal validity of an experiment. It occurs when people chose to be in a group, which can cause undesired systematic differences not due to the IV—confounds. It is a form of intact group error.
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What are selection effects?
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This is a form of error that affects internal validity. It occurs when researchers may ignore certain factors, especially environmental ones that may actually be causing systematic differences.
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What are extraneous variables?
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This is a form of error that affects internal validity. It occurs when subjects drop out more in one condition than another. It ruins the balance of group equivalence created by random assignment.
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What is subject loss?
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These are beliefs held by either the subjects or the experimenters about he experiment. They are threats to internal validity.
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What are expectances?
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This form of error is a sub-branch of expectancies. It occurs when subjects believe that the experimenter/observer wants them to behave in a certain way (aka reactivity). When this occurs, it threatens internal validity.
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What are demand characteristics?
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This form of error is a sub-branch of expectancies. It occurs when an observer treats subjects differently based on their condition. When it occurs, it threatens internal validity.
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What are experimenter effects?
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Researchers limit this type of threat to internal validity by having double-blind studies. That way, no one will treat anyone differently.
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What is the way that researchers limit experimental effects?
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We determine how many of these are in complex designs, by factoring. That is, we take then number of levels in each independent variable and multiple them together.
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What is the way that we determine how many conditions we have in a complex design?
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This type of research design differs from experimental designs because there are more than one independent variable in the test.
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What are the ways that a complex design differs from a simple experimental design?
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We calculate this number by multiplying the number of levels in each independent variable together.
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What is the way that do we calculate the number of conditions in a factorial design?
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There are 8 possible outcomes for this number of independent variables in a complex design. And there are 128 possible outcomes for this number of independent variables in this a complex design.
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What are all the possible effects we could test in a design with 2 IVs? 3 IVs?
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This type of research design has the advantage of being able to see how the interactions between each level of independent variables.
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What is the main advantage of using a complex design?
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