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155 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What is social perception?
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Individuals infer what they see, judge what they see and use this information to predict what will happen in the future.
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What are stereotypes?
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Generalized labels that are applied to large groups of individuals on the basis of occupation, class, race, etc.
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What are scripts?
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They are the verbal dialogues that are the same for interactions.
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Why might people make different inferences from social cues?
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social position and individual differences of personality
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What are cues?
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'dictionaries in our heads'
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Where do cues develop from?
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biological elements or learned from parents, media, etc.
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What is the correspondent inference theory?
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A cue may be an inference of a person's traits, or it may be because of external conformity.
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How is information gained for cues and inferences?
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Information is gained from verbal behavior, non-verbal behavior and physical behavior.
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What are some examples of non-verbal behavior?
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Appearance, face, body and voice.
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What indicates a 'true' smile?
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The eyebrow flash.
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What are microexpressions?
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When the face takes on a different expression for a fifth of the second; we can put on many emotions at the same time.
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What is gaze?
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Mutual eye contact
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What is one way you can tell if someone is nervous?
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Eyes are blinking at a higher rate
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What are some examples of adaptors?
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Hand on body, hair preening, gait and distances.
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What is the term for the study of the voice?
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Paralinguistics.
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What are some of the features to the voice?
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tempo, volume, accent
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What is the implicit personality theory?
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A series of cognitive connections about what qualities go with what behaviors
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What do interferences allow us to do?
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Operate in the social world
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What are schema?
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Clusters of information that hang together on a 'mental hook' about a certain person.
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What are stereotypes?
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Group schema.
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What are attitudes?
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Schemas about an object
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What two qualities to schema vary in?
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Complexity and organization
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What determines the ease of a conversation with another person?
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How complex your schemas are about a certain subject matter
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What are prototypes?
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Visual images that we make of others for instant recognition
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How are scripts different from other schema?
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They have a time element that does not exist with other schema
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What are some advantages to schemas?
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They are fast and efficient ways to interpret the social world, and they help us remember things and communicate more smoothly with other people.
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What are some problems with schemas?
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We tend to rely on the first label we place in a schema; we favoritize certain schemas and we use schema to fill in information that we 'saw'.
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What are two examples of studies in which individuals relied on the first label in their schema?
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"Sane versus insane places" and the football game between Dartmouth and Princeton
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What condition had the greatest amount of overlap when two different people looked at children?
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When one person looks at two different kids - 78%
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What is priming?
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Recency effect with schema - if you recently used information from a schema, you are more likely to use it again.
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What is judgment?
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Assigning values to every piece of information contained in a schema
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How do we put together generalized views of others?
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By averaging the traits, rather than summing them.
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What is the average weighted model?
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We form clear understandings of others through averaging traits, and some of them are weighted a lot more tha others
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What needs to occur for us to see groups as units?
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Proximity of location, similarity in characteristics
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What is the implied external contrast?
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The idea that an outgroup is more homogeneous than mine
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What are the three cognitive rules for stereotyping?
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Diagnostic ratio, illusory correlation and based on values
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What is the diagnostic ratio?
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The notion that a certain group has a higher percentage of people with a characteristic than in the general population
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In terms of a diagnostic ratio, how can we break down stereotypes?
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Come up with a percentage for the rest of the population
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What are illusory correlations?
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Characteristics are put on groups that do not always represent them accurately
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What are problems with stereotypes?
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Mis-labeling, prototypes and multiple stereotypes
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Why might prototypes be problematic?
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Representative fallacy may occur, where a person is placed in a stereotypical group because of their looks, however, they really do not belong there.
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What is representative fallacy?
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Prototypes lead to false stereotypes.
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What is the basis for negative stereotyping?
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Cognitive overload
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What is a way in which we can reduce stereotyping?
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Slow life down so that we don't have to label people with a stereotype.
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What is crucial for self-schemas?
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Being aware of yourself as an individual entity
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When can you first start developing a self-schema?
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at 18 months old
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What are the two different ways to 'add' characteristics to your self-schemas?
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Self perception and reflected appraisal
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What is self-perception?
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The way you know who you are is because you have been watching yourself and looking at your own behavior
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What is reflected appraisal?
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The way you know who you are is because people have told you who you are
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What sociological quality relates to reflected appraisal?
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Looking glass self
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What is the MUM effect?
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When you are older, people don't tell you what you are doing wrong
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What is distinctivness in terms of the self?
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If there is something distinctive about you, you are more likely to have this in your self concept
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What is the most elaborate and organized concept?
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Self schema
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What is the false consensus effect?
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The tendency to see other people as being like you - you are the default point for reference
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According to William James, what are the areas of self-concepts?
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1) inter-personal, inter-relational self
2) collective social self 3) material self (physical characteristics) 4) personality traits |
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What are the two sorts of culture that are considered in social psych?
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Individualistic and collectivisit
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What is self-esteem?
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Judgment of the self which requires you to think reflectively about yourself
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What is public self consciousness?
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When a person spends an extended amount of time thinking about their outside appearances
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What is private self consciousness?
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When people spend a lot of time thinking about themselves
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What is the passive model of self esteem?
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When people look at others around them
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What is the active model of self-esteem?
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When you make a decision about who you would like to be compared to - you choose the standard
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What is a theory under the active model of self-esteem?
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the social comparison theory
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What are some motivations for the self-esteem process?
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Self enhancement
Self verification Terror Managment |
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What is self-enhancement?
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When you manipulate something to make yourself feel good
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What is self-verification?
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When you would like to be equal with others
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What is terror management?
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The idea that high self-esteem protects us from the fear of death
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How is internal self-esteem determined?
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One's standard divided by their actual sense of self
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What is BIRG?
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Basking in reflected glory
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What is basking in reflected glory?
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If there is a drop in self-esteem, you tend to rely on the success of other people more
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What is the self-esteem maintanence theory?
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We need to be careful when we 'borrow' other people's successes, because if they are too similar to your own, you may end up in social comparison
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What are some ways of changing how you feel about yourself?
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adjusting the standard, upward and downward social comparisons, and basking in reflected glory
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What are some downsides to high self-esteem?
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narcissism, bullies, infidelity
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What are some positive attributes of high self-esteem?
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You are generally happier and healthier
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What is depressive realism?
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When you have a lower self esteem and therefore, you are a a more accurate perceiver of social events
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What is TOTE?
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Test, Operate, Test, Exit
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What does the TOTE model relate to?
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self-concept - discrepancy motivates you to reach a standard
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What is remination?
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The idea that the more you think about oneself, the worse you begin to feel
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What are two ways to defend against destructive feedback?
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Distraction and compensation
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What are the four external social forces?
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1) TOTE
2) self-monitoring 3) stereotype threat 4) choking under pressure |
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What are self-monitors?
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People who look at others and aim to match them
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What two groups tend to be associated with stereotype threats?
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African Americans and intelligence tests; women and science
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What is the rationale behind the stereotype threat?
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A stereotype hinders your ability to perform at your best.
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What group of individuals tend to be associated with "choking under pressure"?
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Athletes
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Why do we choke under pressure?
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In complex performances, there is split attention between self awareness and the task at hand.
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How can we curb the effects of choking under pressure?
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Train people to react to increased levels of self-awareness.
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What are the four qualities that can be used in reference to attributions?
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Internal, external, stable and unstable
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What is the fundamental attribution error?
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The idea that something about a person makes them behave in a certain manner.
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What are the four reasons for the fundamental attribution error?
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1) perception
2) informational 3) motivational 4) cultural |
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What is hedonic relevance?
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The more I am impacted by the consequences of a situation, the more I tend to blame others.
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Why are self-attributions difficult?
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perceptual - we can't see ourselves
informational - we know ourselves, and therefore, we assume causes are external motivational - we make self-serving attributions to protect ourselves |
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What is depressive attributional style?
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When someone believes that good things occur due to external factors and negative events occur because of internal characteristics.
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What is the actor-observer effect?
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The difference between observing a person doing an action and believing in internal attributions and acting yourself and thinking of external causes.
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What are two manners of self-serving attributions?
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excuses and self-handicapping
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What do excuses tend to rely on?
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External, uncontrollable and unstable situations.
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What is self-handicapping?
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Engaging in a behavior prior to an event for an external excuse to develop.
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What does an external self attribution protect?
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Yourself and your self-esteem
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What are the three components to the effortable attribution analysis?
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1) consistency
2) consensus 3) distinctiveness |
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What is the effortable attribution analysis?
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It helps us decide if an event has an external or internal cause.
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What is discounting?
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If both internal and external reasons are present for the occurrance of a situation, then there is not much confidence in the answer.
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What is augmenting?
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Internal confidence is very strong for a particular action/decision, and therefore, it overrides the external
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What is the self-concept?
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The total sum of beliefs people have about themselves.
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What does the idea of introspection highlight?
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That self knowledge comes from looking at one's own thoughts and feelings.
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What are problems with introspection?
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1) humans are too busy to think about themselves
2) people are biased towards themselves |
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What is affective forecasting?
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The process of predicting how one would feel in response to future emotional events.
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What is the impact bias?
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The thought that people overestimate the duration and strength of their emotional reactions.
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How can we counteract the impact bias?
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By focusing on outside experiences and facotrs.
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What is the facial feedback hypothesis?
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Changes in facial expression can lead to corresponding changes in emotion.
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What is intrinsic motivation?
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Originates in factors within a person.
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What is extrinsic motivation?
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Originates in factors outside a person.
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When do we engage in social comparison?
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When there is social uncertainty and we evaluate ourselves in relation to others.
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What is the two factor theory of emotion?
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Experience of emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal.
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What is the reminiscence peak?
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The idea that adults tend to remember events from their adolescence and early adult years.
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What does individualism emphasize?
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The virtues of independence, autonomy, and self-reliance.
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What does collectivism highlight?
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The virtues of interdependence, cooperation and social harmony.
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What is the self-discrepancy theory?
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Your self-esteem depends on the amount of discrepancy between your actual self and your ideal self.
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What is the self awareness theory?
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Self-focused attention leads people to notice self-discrepancies and therefore motivates them to either escape from self-awareness or change behaviors.
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What are some examples of ironic processes?
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The harder you try to inhibit a thought, feeling or behavior, the less likely you are to succeed.
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What are two common goals of self-presentation?
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Ingratiation and self promotion.
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What is ingratiation?
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Acts that are motivate by the desire to get along with others and be well liked.
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What is strategic self-presentation?
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Our efforts to shape others' impressions in a specific way in order to gain influence, power, sympathy or approval.
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What are scripts?
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Prior notions about social situations that help us predict goals, behaviors and outcomes in a particular setting.
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What are the six basic emotions?
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Happiness, sadness, surprise, anger, fear and disgust
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What is the correspondent inference theory?
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People try to infer from an action whether the act itself corresponds to an enduring personal characteristic.
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What is the availability heuristic?
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The tendency to estimate the likelihood that an event will occur by how easily instances of it come to mind.
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What is counterfactual thinking?
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The tendency to imagine alternative events or outcomes that might have occurred but did not.
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What is the implicit personality theory?
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The network of assumptions people make about the relationships between traits and behaviors - knowing someone has one trait leads us to assume the person has other traits.
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What is the outgroup homogeneity effect?
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The tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than ingroups.
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What do incremental theorists believe about groups?
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That they are dynamic, changeable and there is more malleability between groups.
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What is the contrast effect?
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When something differs greatly from expectation, it is magnified and noticed more prevaltantly.
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What is the social identity theory?
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The notion that people favor ingroups over outgroups to enhance their self-esteem.
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What is sexism?
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Prejudice and discrimination based on a person's gender.
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What is racism?
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Prejudice and discrimination based on a person's racial background.
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What is the overjustification effect?
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The notion that reward can undermine intrinsic motivation making someone wonder why they engaged in a behavior in the first place.
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If people are asked about themselves, what are they likely to describe?
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They are likely to explain themselves in a manner that will make them distinctive from others.
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What is the sociometer?
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Self esteem serving as an indicator of how we are doing in the eyes of others.
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What are the three categories of social life?
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Social perception
Social influence Social interaction |
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When we make inferences about other people, what do we try to find out?
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social positions and personality differences
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What is the raw data of social perception?
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persons, situations, and behavior
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What is the cute response?
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It gives the idea that cues are biological elements
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What is the primacy effect?
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Tendency for information presented early in a sequence has more impact on impressions than information presented later.
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What is the IAT?
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Implicit Association Test.
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What does the IAT measure?
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Stereotypes - the longer it takes you to fight stereotypes with mis-matching categories.
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What is social dominance orientation?
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A desire to see one's ingroup as dominant over other groups.
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What is the self-reference effect?
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Things that are relevant to the self are more likely to be remembered and remembered correctly.
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What are the sub categories of the self according to William James?
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materialistic - things about yourself that are physical
social personality |
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What are the two components to the social sub self?
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inter-personal self
collective social self |
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What are the three sub categories of the social self?
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roles
interdependent self collective social identity |
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What is the covariation model?
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People attribute behaviors to factors that are present at the time.
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What is another term for the effortable attribution analysis?
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Covariation model
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What is the base rate fallacy?
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People tend to ignore statistics and rely more on situations that appeal to the emotional side.
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What is belief perseverence?
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The tendency to maintain beliefs even after they have been discredited.
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What is belief in a just world?
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The idea that individuals get what they deserve in life.
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What is implicit egotism?
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A nonconscious form of self-enhancement.
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What is the information integration theory?
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The theory that impressions are formed through a perciever's dispositions and a weighed average of a target person's traits.
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What is modern racism?
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prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable and easy to rationalize.
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