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155 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What is social perception?
Individuals infer what they see, judge what they see and use this information to predict what will happen in the future.
What are stereotypes?
Generalized labels that are applied to large groups of individuals on the basis of occupation, class, race, etc.
What are scripts?
They are the verbal dialogues that are the same for interactions.
Why might people make different inferences from social cues?
social position and individual differences of personality
What are cues?
'dictionaries in our heads'
Where do cues develop from?
biological elements or learned from parents, media, etc.
What is the correspondent inference theory?
A cue may be an inference of a person's traits, or it may be because of external conformity.
How is information gained for cues and inferences?
Information is gained from verbal behavior, non-verbal behavior and physical behavior.
What are some examples of non-verbal behavior?
Appearance, face, body and voice.
What indicates a 'true' smile?
The eyebrow flash.
What are microexpressions?
When the face takes on a different expression for a fifth of the second; we can put on many emotions at the same time.
What is gaze?
Mutual eye contact
What is one way you can tell if someone is nervous?
Eyes are blinking at a higher rate
What are some examples of adaptors?
Hand on body, hair preening, gait and distances.
What is the term for the study of the voice?
Paralinguistics.
What are some of the features to the voice?
tempo, volume, accent
What is the implicit personality theory?
A series of cognitive connections about what qualities go with what behaviors
What do interferences allow us to do?
Operate in the social world
What are schema?
Clusters of information that hang together on a 'mental hook' about a certain person.
What are stereotypes?
Group schema.
What are attitudes?
Schemas about an object
What two qualities to schema vary in?
Complexity and organization
What determines the ease of a conversation with another person?
How complex your schemas are about a certain subject matter
What are prototypes?
Visual images that we make of others for instant recognition
How are scripts different from other schema?
They have a time element that does not exist with other schema
What are some advantages to schemas?
They are fast and efficient ways to interpret the social world, and they help us remember things and communicate more smoothly with other people.
What are some problems with schemas?
We tend to rely on the first label we place in a schema; we favoritize certain schemas and we use schema to fill in information that we 'saw'.
What are two examples of studies in which individuals relied on the first label in their schema?
"Sane versus insane places" and the football game between Dartmouth and Princeton
What condition had the greatest amount of overlap when two different people looked at children?
When one person looks at two different kids - 78%
What is priming?
Recency effect with schema - if you recently used information from a schema, you are more likely to use it again.
What is judgment?
Assigning values to every piece of information contained in a schema
How do we put together generalized views of others?
By averaging the traits, rather than summing them.
What is the average weighted model?
We form clear understandings of others through averaging traits, and some of them are weighted a lot more tha others
What needs to occur for us to see groups as units?
Proximity of location, similarity in characteristics
What is the implied external contrast?
The idea that an outgroup is more homogeneous than mine
What are the three cognitive rules for stereotyping?
Diagnostic ratio, illusory correlation and based on values
What is the diagnostic ratio?
The notion that a certain group has a higher percentage of people with a characteristic than in the general population
In terms of a diagnostic ratio, how can we break down stereotypes?
Come up with a percentage for the rest of the population
What are illusory correlations?
Characteristics are put on groups that do not always represent them accurately
What are problems with stereotypes?
Mis-labeling, prototypes and multiple stereotypes
Why might prototypes be problematic?
Representative fallacy may occur, where a person is placed in a stereotypical group because of their looks, however, they really do not belong there.
What is representative fallacy?
Prototypes lead to false stereotypes.
What is the basis for negative stereotyping?
Cognitive overload
What is a way in which we can reduce stereotyping?
Slow life down so that we don't have to label people with a stereotype.
What is crucial for self-schemas?
Being aware of yourself as an individual entity
When can you first start developing a self-schema?
at 18 months old
What are the two different ways to 'add' characteristics to your self-schemas?
Self perception and reflected appraisal
What is self-perception?
The way you know who you are is because you have been watching yourself and looking at your own behavior
What is reflected appraisal?
The way you know who you are is because people have told you who you are
What sociological quality relates to reflected appraisal?
Looking glass self
What is the MUM effect?
When you are older, people don't tell you what you are doing wrong
What is distinctivness in terms of the self?
If there is something distinctive about you, you are more likely to have this in your self concept
What is the most elaborate and organized concept?
Self schema
What is the false consensus effect?
The tendency to see other people as being like you - you are the default point for reference
According to William James, what are the areas of self-concepts?
1) inter-personal, inter-relational self
2) collective social self
3) material self (physical characteristics)
4) personality traits
What are the two sorts of culture that are considered in social psych?
Individualistic and collectivisit
What is self-esteem?
Judgment of the self which requires you to think reflectively about yourself
What is public self consciousness?
When a person spends an extended amount of time thinking about their outside appearances
What is private self consciousness?
When people spend a lot of time thinking about themselves
What is the passive model of self esteem?
When people look at others around them
What is the active model of self-esteem?
When you make a decision about who you would like to be compared to - you choose the standard
What is a theory under the active model of self-esteem?
the social comparison theory
What are some motivations for the self-esteem process?
Self enhancement
Self verification
Terror Managment
What is self-enhancement?
When you manipulate something to make yourself feel good
What is self-verification?
When you would like to be equal with others
What is terror management?
The idea that high self-esteem protects us from the fear of death
How is internal self-esteem determined?
One's standard divided by their actual sense of self
What is BIRG?
Basking in reflected glory
What is basking in reflected glory?
If there is a drop in self-esteem, you tend to rely on the success of other people more
What is the self-esteem maintanence theory?
We need to be careful when we 'borrow' other people's successes, because if they are too similar to your own, you may end up in social comparison
What are some ways of changing how you feel about yourself?
adjusting the standard, upward and downward social comparisons, and basking in reflected glory
What are some downsides to high self-esteem?
narcissism, bullies, infidelity
What are some positive attributes of high self-esteem?
You are generally happier and healthier
What is depressive realism?
When you have a lower self esteem and therefore, you are a a more accurate perceiver of social events
What is TOTE?
Test, Operate, Test, Exit
What does the TOTE model relate to?
self-concept - discrepancy motivates you to reach a standard
What is remination?
The idea that the more you think about oneself, the worse you begin to feel
What are two ways to defend against destructive feedback?
Distraction and compensation
What are the four external social forces?
1) TOTE
2) self-monitoring
3) stereotype threat
4) choking under pressure
What are self-monitors?
People who look at others and aim to match them
What two groups tend to be associated with stereotype threats?
African Americans and intelligence tests; women and science
What is the rationale behind the stereotype threat?
A stereotype hinders your ability to perform at your best.
What group of individuals tend to be associated with "choking under pressure"?
Athletes
Why do we choke under pressure?
In complex performances, there is split attention between self awareness and the task at hand.
How can we curb the effects of choking under pressure?
Train people to react to increased levels of self-awareness.
What are the four qualities that can be used in reference to attributions?
Internal, external, stable and unstable
What is the fundamental attribution error?
The idea that something about a person makes them behave in a certain manner.
What are the four reasons for the fundamental attribution error?
1) perception
2) informational
3) motivational
4) cultural
What is hedonic relevance?
The more I am impacted by the consequences of a situation, the more I tend to blame others.
Why are self-attributions difficult?
perceptual - we can't see ourselves

informational - we know ourselves, and therefore, we assume causes are external

motivational - we make self-serving attributions to protect ourselves
What is depressive attributional style?
When someone believes that good things occur due to external factors and negative events occur because of internal characteristics.
What is the actor-observer effect?
The difference between observing a person doing an action and believing in internal attributions and acting yourself and thinking of external causes.
What are two manners of self-serving attributions?
excuses and self-handicapping
What do excuses tend to rely on?
External, uncontrollable and unstable situations.
What is self-handicapping?
Engaging in a behavior prior to an event for an external excuse to develop.
What does an external self attribution protect?
Yourself and your self-esteem
What are the three components to the effortable attribution analysis?
1) consistency
2) consensus
3) distinctiveness
What is the effortable attribution analysis?
It helps us decide if an event has an external or internal cause.
What is discounting?
If both internal and external reasons are present for the occurrance of a situation, then there is not much confidence in the answer.
What is augmenting?
Internal confidence is very strong for a particular action/decision, and therefore, it overrides the external
What is the self-concept?
The total sum of beliefs people have about themselves.
What does the idea of introspection highlight?
That self knowledge comes from looking at one's own thoughts and feelings.
What are problems with introspection?
1) humans are too busy to think about themselves

2) people are biased towards themselves
What is affective forecasting?
The process of predicting how one would feel in response to future emotional events.
What is the impact bias?
The thought that people overestimate the duration and strength of their emotional reactions.
How can we counteract the impact bias?
By focusing on outside experiences and facotrs.
What is the facial feedback hypothesis?
Changes in facial expression can lead to corresponding changes in emotion.
What is intrinsic motivation?
Originates in factors within a person.
What is extrinsic motivation?
Originates in factors outside a person.
When do we engage in social comparison?
When there is social uncertainty and we evaluate ourselves in relation to others.
What is the two factor theory of emotion?
Experience of emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal.
What is the reminiscence peak?
The idea that adults tend to remember events from their adolescence and early adult years.
What does individualism emphasize?
The virtues of independence, autonomy, and self-reliance.
What does collectivism highlight?
The virtues of interdependence, cooperation and social harmony.
What is the self-discrepancy theory?
Your self-esteem depends on the amount of discrepancy between your actual self and your ideal self.
What is the self awareness theory?
Self-focused attention leads people to notice self-discrepancies and therefore motivates them to either escape from self-awareness or change behaviors.
What are some examples of ironic processes?
The harder you try to inhibit a thought, feeling or behavior, the less likely you are to succeed.
What are two common goals of self-presentation?
Ingratiation and self promotion.
What is ingratiation?
Acts that are motivate by the desire to get along with others and be well liked.
What is strategic self-presentation?
Our efforts to shape others' impressions in a specific way in order to gain influence, power, sympathy or approval.
What are scripts?
Prior notions about social situations that help us predict goals, behaviors and outcomes in a particular setting.
What are the six basic emotions?
Happiness, sadness, surprise, anger, fear and disgust
What is the correspondent inference theory?
People try to infer from an action whether the act itself corresponds to an enduring personal characteristic.
What is the availability heuristic?
The tendency to estimate the likelihood that an event will occur by how easily instances of it come to mind.
What is counterfactual thinking?
The tendency to imagine alternative events or outcomes that might have occurred but did not.
What is the implicit personality theory?
The network of assumptions people make about the relationships between traits and behaviors - knowing someone has one trait leads us to assume the person has other traits.
What is the outgroup homogeneity effect?
The tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than ingroups.
What do incremental theorists believe about groups?
That they are dynamic, changeable and there is more malleability between groups.
What is the contrast effect?
When something differs greatly from expectation, it is magnified and noticed more prevaltantly.
What is the social identity theory?
The notion that people favor ingroups over outgroups to enhance their self-esteem.
What is sexism?
Prejudice and discrimination based on a person's gender.
What is racism?
Prejudice and discrimination based on a person's racial background.
What is the overjustification effect?
The notion that reward can undermine intrinsic motivation making someone wonder why they engaged in a behavior in the first place.
If people are asked about themselves, what are they likely to describe?
They are likely to explain themselves in a manner that will make them distinctive from others.
What is the sociometer?
Self esteem serving as an indicator of how we are doing in the eyes of others.
What are the three categories of social life?
Social perception
Social influence
Social interaction
When we make inferences about other people, what do we try to find out?
social positions and personality differences
What is the raw data of social perception?
persons, situations, and behavior
What is the cute response?
It gives the idea that cues are biological elements
What is the primacy effect?
Tendency for information presented early in a sequence has more impact on impressions than information presented later.
What is the IAT?
Implicit Association Test.
What does the IAT measure?
Stereotypes - the longer it takes you to fight stereotypes with mis-matching categories.
What is social dominance orientation?
A desire to see one's ingroup as dominant over other groups.
What is the self-reference effect?
Things that are relevant to the self are more likely to be remembered and remembered correctly.
What are the sub categories of the self according to William James?
materialistic - things about yourself that are physical

social

personality
What are the two components to the social sub self?
inter-personal self

collective social self
What are the three sub categories of the social self?
roles

interdependent self

collective social identity
What is the covariation model?
People attribute behaviors to factors that are present at the time.
What is another term for the effortable attribution analysis?
Covariation model
What is the base rate fallacy?
People tend to ignore statistics and rely more on situations that appeal to the emotional side.
What is belief perseverence?
The tendency to maintain beliefs even after they have been discredited.
What is belief in a just world?
The idea that individuals get what they deserve in life.
What is implicit egotism?
A nonconscious form of self-enhancement.
What is the information integration theory?
The theory that impressions are formed through a perciever's dispositions and a weighed average of a target person's traits.
What is modern racism?
prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable and easy to rationalize.