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209 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Reliable
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the extent to which measures of the same phenomenon are consistent and repeatable; measures high in reliability will contain a minimum of measurement error
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Measurement error
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produuced by any factor that introduces inaccuracies into the measurement of some variable
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Valid
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the extent to which a measur of X truly measures X and not Y
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Content Validity
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occurs when a measure appears to be a reasonable measure of some trait
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Face Validity
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occurs when a measure appears to those taking a test to be a reasonable measure of some trait; not considered by researchers to be an important indicator of validity
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Criterion Validity
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validity in which a psychological measure is able to predict some future behavior or is meaningfully related to some other measure
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Construct Validity
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occurs when the measure being used accurately assesses some hypothetical construct; also refers to whether the construct itself is valid
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Convergent Validity
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occurs when scores on a test designed to measure some construct are correlated with scores on other tests that are theoretically related to the construct
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Discriminant Validity
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occurs when scores on a test designed to measure some construct are uncorrelated with scores on other tests that should be theoretically unrelated to the construct
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Nominal Scale
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measurement scale in which the numbers have no quantitative value, but rather serve to identify categories into which events can be placed
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Ordinal Scale
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measurement scale in which assigned numbers stand for relative standing or ranking
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Interval Scale
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measurement scale in which numbers refer to quantities and intervals are assumed to be of equal size; a score of zero does not denote the absence of the measurement
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Ratio Scale
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measurement scale in which numbers refer to quantities and intervals are assumed to be of equal size; a score of zero denotes to absence of the phenomenon being measured
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Descriptive statistics
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Provide a summary of the main features of a set of data collected from a smaple of participants
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Inferential statistics
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used to draw conclusions about the broader population on the basis of a study uing just a sample of the population
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Standard deviation
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a measure of the average deviation of a set of scores from the mean score; square root of variance
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Variance
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a measure of the average squared standard deviation of a set of scores from the mean score
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Histogram
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frequency bar graph
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Null hypothesis
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the assumption that no real difference exists between treatment conditions in an experiment or that no significant relationship exists in a correlational study (Ho)
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Alternative hypothesis
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the researcher's hypothesis about a study (H1)
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Alpha (a) level
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the probability of making a type 1 error, the significance level
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Type I error
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rejecting the null hypothesis when its true, finding statistically significant effect when no true effect exists
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Type II error
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failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is false; failing to find a statistically significant effect when no true effect exists
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Systenatic variance
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variability that can be attributed to some identifiable source, either the systematic variation of the independent variable or the uncontrolled variation of a confound
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Error variance
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nonsystematic variability in a set of scores due to random factors or individual differences
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File Drawer Effect
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studies finding no differences are less likely to be published and end up being stored away in one's files
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Effect Size
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amount of influence that one variable has on another; the amount of variance in the dependent variable that can be attributed to the independent variable
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Meta-anaylysis
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statistical tool for combining the effect size of a number of studies to determine if general patterns occur in the data
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Confidence Interval
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an inferential statistic in which a range of scores is calculated; with some degree of confidence (95%); it is assumed that population values lie within the interval
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Power
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the chance of being able to reject the null hypothesis (1 - beta)
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Experiment
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a research procedure in which some factor is varied, all else is held constant and some result is measured
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Field experiment
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an experiment that is conducted outside the lab, narrower term than field research
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Situational variable
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type of independent variable in which subjects encounter different environmental circumstances (large vs small rooms)
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Task variable
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type of IV in which participants are given different typed of tasks to perform (level of difficulty)
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Instructional variable
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type of IV in which participants are given different sets of instructions about how to perform
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Extraneous variable
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any uncontrolled factor that isnt of interest to the researcher but could affect the results
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Confound
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any extraneous variable that covaries with the independent variable and could provide and alternative explanation of the results
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Subject variable
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a type of IV that is selected rather than manipulated by the experimenter; refers to an already existing attribute of the individuals chosen for the study (gender)
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Statistical conclusion validity
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said to exist when the researcher uses statistical analysis properly and draws the appropriate conlusions from the analysis
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External Validity
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the extent to which the finding of a study generalize to other populations, settings and times
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Ecological validity
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said to exist when research studies psychological phenomena in everyday situations (where we put our keys)
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Internal validity
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the extent to which a study is free from methodological flaws, especially confounding factors
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History
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threat to internal validity; occurs when some historical even that could affect participants happens between the beginning of a study and its end
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Maturation
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threat to internal validity; occurs when participants change from the beginning to the end of a study simply as a result of maturational changes within them and not as a result of an IV
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Instrumentation
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threat to internal validity; occurs when the measuring instrument changes from pretest to posttest
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Testing
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threat to internal validity; occurs when the fact of taking a pretest influences posttest scores, perhaps by sensitizing participants to purpose of a study
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Subject selection
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threat to internal validityl occurs when those participating in a study cannot be assigned randomly to groups resulting in groups that are nonequivalent
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Attrition
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threat to internal validity; occurs when participants fail to complete a study, usually but not necessarily a longitudinal study; thsoe finishing the study may not be equivalent to those who started
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Between subjects design
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any experimental design in which different groups of participants serve in the different conditions of the study
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Within-subjects design
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any experimental design in which the same participants serve in each of the different condition of the study; also called repeated measures
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Equivalent groups design
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groups of participants in a between subjects design that are essentially equal to each other in all ways except for the different levels of the IV
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Random assignment
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the most common procedure for creating equivalent groups in a between subjects design; each individual volunteering for the sudy has an equal probability of being assigned to only one of the groups in the study
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Block randomization
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random assignment that ensures that each condition of the study has a subject randomly assigned to it before any condition has a subject assigned to it again; also used in counterbalancing for within subjects designs to ensure that when participants are tested in each condition more than once, they experience each condition one before experiencing any condition again
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Matching
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procedure for creating equivalent groups in which participants are measured on some factor expected to correlated with the dependent variable; groups are then formed by taking participants who score at the same level on the matching variable and randomly assigning them to groups
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Repeated-measures design
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within-subjects
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Sequence (order) effect
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can occur in a WS design when the experience of participating in one of the condition of the study influences performance in subsequent condtions
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Progressive effect
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in a WS design, any sequence effect in which the accumulated effects are assumed to be the same from trial
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Carryover effect
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form of sequence effect in which systematic changes in performance occur as a result of completing on sequence of conditions rather than a different sequence
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Counterbalancing
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for a WS subjects variable, any procedure designed to control for sequence effects
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Complete counterbalancing
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occurs when all possible orders of conditions are used in a WS subjects design
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Partial counterbalancing
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occurs when a subset of all possible orders of conditions is used in a WS design
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Latin square
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form of partial counterbalancing in which each condition of the study occurs equally oftern in each sequential position and each condition precedes and follows each other condition
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Reverse counterbalancing
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occurs in a WS design when particiapnts are tested more than once per condition; subjects experience one sequence and then a second with the order reversed from the first (A-B-C-C-B-A)
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Asymmetric transfer
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occurs when one sequence produces a transfer effect that is different from that produced by another counterbalanced sequence
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Cross-sectional study
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in developmental psychology, a design in which age is the IV and different groups of people are tested; each group is a different age
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Cohort effect
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can reduce the internal validity of cross-sectional studies because difference between groups could result from the effects of growing up in different historical eras
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Cohort sequential design
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design that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal designs; a new cohort is added to a study every few years and then studied periodically throughout the time course of the study
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Protocol
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detailed description of the sequence of events in a research session; used by an experimenter to insure uniformity of treatment of research participants
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Participant bias
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occurs when the behavior of participants is influence by their beliefs about how they are supposed to act
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Hawthorne effect
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a form of participant bias in which behavior is influenced by the knowledge that the participant is in a study and is therefore of some importance to the experimenter
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Good subject effect
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form of participant bias in which participants try to guess the experimenter's hypothesis and then behave in such a way to confirm it
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Demand characteristic
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any feature of the experimental design or procedure that increases that chances that participants will detect the true purpose of the study
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Evaluation apprehension
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drug use or aggression example
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Manipulation check
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in debriefing, a procedure to determine if subjects were aware of a deception experiment's true purpose; also refers to any procedure that determines if systematic manipulations have the intended effect
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Independent groups design
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BS design that uses a manipulated IV and has a least two groups of participants, random assignment
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Matched group design
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BS design that uses a manipulated IV and has at least two groups of participants; subjects matched on some variable assumed to affect the outcome before being randomly assigned to groups
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Nonequivalent groups design
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BS design with at least two groups that are unequal
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Homogeneity of Variance
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assumption of t test or ANOVA, fact that variability among all the conditions of a study out to be similar
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t test for independent groups
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inferential stat anaysis used when comparing 2 groups in either an independent groups design or nonequivalent groups design
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t test for dependent groups
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inferential stat analysis used when comparing 2 groups in either a matched groups design or a repeated measures design
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Single-factor multilevel design
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any design with a single IV and 2+ levels of the IV
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Nonlinear effects
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can occur only when the IV has more than 2 levels
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Continuous Variable
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infinite values exist (drug dosgae level); use line graph
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Discrete variable
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each level represents a distinct category that is qualitatively different from another category (male/female)
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ANOVA
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used for analyzing the results of experiments where results are measured on interval or ratio scales
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Yoked control group
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treatment given to a member of the control group is matched exactly with the treatment given to a member of the experimental group
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Error bars
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indicate the amount of variability around a mean; often reflects standard deviation or confidence intervals
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Factorial design
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an experimental design with more than one IV
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Factorial matrix
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a row and column arrangement that characterizes a factorial design and shows the IVS, the levels of each IV and the total number of conditions (cells) in the study
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Main effect
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refers to whether or not statistically significant differences exist between the levels of an independent variable in a factorial design
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Interaction
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in a factorial design, occurs when the effect of one IV depends on the level of another IV
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Mixed factorial design
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a factorial design with at least one BS factor and one WS factor
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PxE factorial design
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a factorial design with at least one subject factor and one manipulated factor
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Mixed PxE factorial design
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a mixed design with at least one subject factor and one manipulated factor
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ATI design
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aptitude by treatment interaction design; form of PxE factorial design found in educational research the goal of which is to examine possible interactions between an aptitude variable (person factor) and a treatment variable (environmental)
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Pearson's r
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measure of the size of a correlation between two variables; ranges from -1 to 1; if r=0, then no relationship exists
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Scatterplot
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graph depicting the relationship shown by correlation
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Restricting the range
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occurs in a correlational study when only a limited range of scores for one or both of the variables is used; tend to lower correlations
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Coefficient of determination (r squared)
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for two correlated factors, the proportion of variance in one factor than can be attributed to the second factor; found by squaring r
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Regression analysis
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in correlational research, knowing the size of a correlation and a value for variable X, it is possible ot predict a value for variable Y
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Regression line
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summarizes the points of a scatterplot and provides the means for making predictions
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Criterion variable
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validity in which a psychological measure is able to predict some future behavior or is meaningfully related to some other measure; generally Y
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Predictor variable
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in a regression analysis, the variable used to predict the criterion variable (SAT scores are used to predict college grades); generally X
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Directionality problem
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in correlational research, this refers to the fact that for a correlation between variables X and Y, it is possible that X is causing Y, but it is also possible that Y is causing X; the correlation alone provides no basis for deciding between the two alternatives
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Cross-lagged panel correlation
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refers to a type of correlational research designed to deal with the directionality problem; if variables X and Y are measured at two different times and if X preceds Y, then X might cause Y but Y cannot cause X
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Third variable problem
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refers to the problem of drawing causal conclusions in correlational research; third variables are any uncontrolled factors that could underline a correlation between variables X and Y
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Partial correlation
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a multivariate statistical procedure for evaluating the effects of third variables; if the correlation between X and Y remains high, even after some third factor Z has been "partialed out," then Z can be eliminated as a third variable
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Split-half reliability
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a form of reliability in which one half of the items (ex. the evens) on a test are correlated with the remaining items
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Test-retest reliability
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a form of reliability in which a test is administered on two separate occasions and the correlation between them is calculated
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Intraclass correlation
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a form of correlation used when pairs of scores od not come from the same individual, as when correlations are calculated for pairs of twins
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Bivariate
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any statistical analysis investigation the relationship between two variables
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Multivariate
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any statistical analysis investigating the relationships among more than two variables
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Multiple regression
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a multivariate analysis that includes a criterion variable and two or mroe predictor variables; the predictors will have different weights
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Factor analysis
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a multivariate analysis in which a large number of variables are intercorrelated; variables that correlate highly with each other form "factors"
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Correlation matrix
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a table that summarizes a series of correlations among several variables
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Quasi-experiment
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occurs whenever causal conclusions about the effect of an independent variable cannot be drawn because there is incomplete control over the variables in the study
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Nonequivalent control group design
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quasi-experimental design in which participants cannot be randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups
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Interrupted time series design
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quasi-experimental design in which a program or treatment is evaluated by measuring performance several times prior to the institution of the program and several times after the program has been put into effect
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Trend
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predictable patterns of events that occur over a period of time; evaluated in time series studies
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Interrupted time series with switching replications
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a time series design in which the program is replicated at a different location and at a different time
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Archival data
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data initially collected for some purpose not related to a current research study, and then used later for a specific purpose in that current research
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Reactivity
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occurs when participants' behavior is influenced by the knowledge that they're being observed and their behavior is being recorded in some fashion
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Program evaluation
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a form of applied research that includes a number of research activities designed to evaluate programs from planning to completion
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Needs analysis
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form of program evaluation that occurs before a program begins and determines whether the program is needed
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Key informant
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in program evaluation research, a community member with special knowledge about the needs of the community
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Focus group
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a small and relatively homogenous group brought together for the purpose of participating in a group interview on some topic or to discuss the need for or the operation of a program
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Formative evaluation
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monitors the functioning of a program while it is operating to determing if it is functioning as planned
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Program audit
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an examination of whether a program is being implemented as planned; a type of formative evaluation
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Pilot study
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during the initial stages of research it is commong for some data to be collected; problems spotted in this trial stage enable the researcher to refine the procedures and prevent the full-scale study from being flawed methodologically
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Summative evaluation
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completed at the close of a program that attempts to determine its effectiveness in solving the problem for which it was planned
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Cost-effectiveness analysis
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assesses program outcomes in terms of the costs involved in developing, running, and completing the program
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Stakeholder
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persons connected with a program who have vested interest in it; includes clients, staff, and program directors
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Individual-subject validity
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the extent to which the general outcome of a research study characterizes the behavior of the individual participants in the study
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Operant conditioning
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form of learning in which behavior is modified by its consequences; a positive consequence strengthens the behavior immediately preceding it, and a negative consequence weakens the behavior immediately preceding it
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Rate of response
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the favored dependent variable of researchers working in the Skinnerian tradition; refers to how frequently a behavior occurs per unit of time
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Cumulative recorder
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apparatus for recording the subject's cumulative rate of response in operant conditioning studies
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Applied behavior analysis
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research using various methods to evaluate the effectiveness of various conditioning procedures in bringing about change in the rate of response of some behavior
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Baseline
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initial stage of small N design, in which the behavior to be changed is monitored to determine its normal rate of response
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A-B design
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small N design in which a baseline period (A) is followed by a treatment period (B)
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Withdrawal design
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any small N design in which a treatment is in place for a time and is then removed to determine if the rate of behavior returns to baseline
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A-B-A design
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small N design in which a baseline period (A) is followed by a treatment period (B) followed by a period in which the treatmentis reversed or withdrawn (second A)
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A-B-A-B design
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like A-B-B design except that a second treatment period is established (second B)
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Multiple baseline design
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small N design in which treatment is introduced at staggered intervals when trying to alter (a) the behavior in the same individual, (b) more than one behavior in the same individual, or (c) the behavior of an individual in more than one setting
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Changing criterion design
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small N design in which the criterion for receving reinforcement begins at a modest level and becomes more stringent as the study progresses; used to shape behavior (working out)
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Shaping
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operant procedure for developing a new behavior that underlies the changing criterion design; behaviors are reinforced as they become progressively close to a final desired behavior
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Social validity
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the extent to which an applied behavior analysis program has the potential to improve society, whether its value is perceived by the study's participants, and whether participants actually used the program
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A-B-C-D design
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small N design that compares contingent reinforcement (B) with noncontingent reinforcement (C); allows the researcher to separate the effects of reinforcers and contingency
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A-Aone-B-Aone-B design
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small N design for evaluating placebo effects; Aone is a condition in the sequence in which a placebo is given
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Alternating treatments design
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small N design that compares, in the same study and for the same participants, two or more separate forms of treatment for changing some behavior
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Naturalistic observation
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descriptive research method in which the behavior of people/animals is studied as it occurs in its everyday environment
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Participant observation
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method in which the behaviro of people is studied as it occurs in its everyday natural environment and the researcher becomes a part of the group being observed
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Observer bias
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can occur when preconceived ideas held by the researcher affect the nature of the observations made
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Behavior checklist
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lists of behaviors with predefined operational definitions that researchers are trained to used in an observational study
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Interobserver reliability
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the degree of agreement between two or more observers of the same event
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Time sampling
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procedure in observational research in which behavior is sampled only during predefined times (every 10 minutes)
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Event sampling
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procedure in onservational research in which only certain types of behaviors occurring under precisely defined condition are sampled
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Convenience sample
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non-probability sample in which the researcher requests volunteers from a group of people who meet the general requirements of the study (teens); used in most psychological research, except when sepcific estimates of population values need to be made
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Probability sampling
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method of selecting research participants according to some systematic sampling procedure
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Representative sample
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sample with characteristics that match those same attributes as they exist in the population
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Self-selection bias
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in surveys, when the sample is composed of only those who voluntarily choose to respond, results in biased sample
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Nonresponse bias
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occurs in a survey research when those who return surveys differ in some systematic fashion (ex. political view) from those who don't respond to the surveys
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Authority
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a way of knowing, proposed by Charles Peirce, in which a person develops a belief by agreeing with someone perceived to be an expert
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A priori method
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a way of knowing, proposed by Charles Perice, in which a person develops a belief by reasoning and reaching agreement with others who are convinced of the merits of the reasoned argument
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Empricism
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a way of knowing that relies on direct observation or experience
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Belief perseverance
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unwillingness to consider any evidence that contradicts a strongly held view; similar to Peirce's principle of tenacity
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Confirmation bias
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social cognition bias in which events that confirm a strongly held belief are more readily perceived and remembered; disconfirming events are ignored or forgotten
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Availability heuristic
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social cognition bias in which vivid or memorable events lead people to overestimate the frequency of occurence of these events
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Determinisn
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an assumption made by scientists that all events have causes
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Discoverability
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an assumption made by scientists that the causes of events can be discovered by applying scientific methods
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Statistical determinism
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an assumption made by research psychologists that behavioral events can be predicted with a probability greater than chance
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Objectivity
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said to exist when observations can be verified by more than one observer
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Introspection
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method used in the early years of psychological science in which an individual would complete a task and then describe the events occurring in consciousness while performing the task
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Data-driven
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belief of research psychologists that conclusions about behavior should be supported by data collected statistically
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Empirical question
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a question that can be answered by making objective observations
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Hypothesis
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an educated guess about a relationship between variables that is then tested empirically
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Theory
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a set of statements that summarizes and organizes existing information about some phenonmenon, provides an explanation for the phenonmenon, and serves as a basis for making predictions to be tested empirically
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Falsification
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research strategy advocated by Popper that emphasizes putting theories to the test by trying to disprove or falsify them
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Anecdotal evidence
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evidence from a single case that illustrates a phenomenon; when relied on exclusively, as in pseudoscience, faulty conclusions can easily be drawn
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Effort justification
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after expending a large amount of time or effort to obtain some goal, people giving the effort feel pressured to convince themselves that the effort was worthwhile, even if the resulting outcome is less positive than originally thought
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Description
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a goal of psychological science in which behaviors are accurately classified or sequences of environmental stimuli and behavioral events are accurately listed
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Laws
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regular, predictable relationships between events
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Prediction
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a goal of psychological science in which statements about the future occurence of some behavioral event is made, usually with some probability
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Explanation
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a goal of science in which the causes of events are sought
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Application
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a goal of science in which basic principles discovered through scientific methods are applied in order to solve problems
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Ethics
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a set of principles prescribing behaviors that are morally correct
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Critical incidents
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method, used by ethics committees, that surveys psychologists and asks for example of unethical behavior by psychologists
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Informed consent
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the idea that persons should be given sufficient information about a study to make their decision to participate as a research subject an informed and voluntary one
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Deception
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a research strategy in which participants are not told of all the details of an experiment at its outset; used for the purpose of avoiding demand characteristics
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Assent
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to give ______ is to say "yes." In the SRCD code of ethics for research with children, refers to the willingness on the part of the child to participate in the study
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Debriefing
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a postexperimental session in which the experimenter explaines the study's purpose, reduces any discomfort felt by participants, and answers any questions posed by participants
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Dehoaxing
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the portion of debriefing in which the true purpose of the study is explained to participants
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Desensitizing
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that portion of debriefing in which the experimenter tries to reduce any distress felt by participants as a result of their research experience
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Confidentiality
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in research ethics, an agreement on the part of the researcher not to divulge the identity of those participating in a research study
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Basic research
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research with the goal of describing, predicting, and explaining fundamental principles of behavior
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Applied research
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research with the goal of trying to solve some immediate real-life problem
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Mundane realism
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refers to how closely the experiment mirros real-life experiences; considered to be less important that experimental realism
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Experimental realism
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refers to how deeply involved the participants become in the experiment
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Operationism
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philosophy of science approach, proposed by Bridgman, that held that all scientific concepts should be defined in terms of a set of operations to be performed
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Operational definitions
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a definition of a concept of variable in terms of precisely described operations, measures, or procedures
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Converging operations
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occurs when the results of several studies, each defining its terms with slightly different operational definitions, nonetheless converge on the same general conclusion
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Construct
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a hypothetical factor (ex. hunger) that cannot be observed directly but is inferred from certain behaviors (ex. eating) and assumed to follow from certain circumstances (ex. 24 hours without food)
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Deduction
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reasoning from the general to the specific; in science, used when deriving research hypotheses from theories
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Induction
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reasoning from the specific to the general; in science, used when the results of specific research studies are used to support or refute a theory
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Productivity
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with reference to theory, this refers to the amount of research that is generated to test a theory. Theories lead to a great deal of research are considered _________.
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Parsimonious
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describing theory that includes the minimum number of constructs and assumptions in order to explain and predict some phenomenon adequately
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Programs of research
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series of interrelated studies in which the outcome of one study leads naturally to another
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Replication
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the repitition of an experiment; exact replication are rare, occurring primarily when the results of some prior study are suspected to be erroneous
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Extension
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replicating part of a prior study, but adding some additional features (ex. more levels to IV)
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Partial replication
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repeats a portion of some prior research; usually completed as part of a study that extends the results of the initial research
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