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70 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Chapter 9
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Memory
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memory
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the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information; our ability to store and retrieve information
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flashbulb memory
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a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event ex: I know exactly where I was when I heard about 9/11
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encoding
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the processing of information into the memory system--for example, by extracting meaning.
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storage
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the retention of encoded information over time
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retrieval
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the process of getting information out of memory storage
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sensory memory
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the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
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short-term memory
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activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
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long-term memory
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the relatively permanent and limitelss storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
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working memory
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a newer understanding of short term memory that invovles conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory ; Alan Baddeley: 1. Immediate experiences sensory input 2. Episodic Buffer (funnels input to the central exec) 3. Central Exec (directs focus ex: decide to take a study break, to get dinner) --Auditory rehearsal(repeat historical dates to oneself) & visual-spatial sketchpad(ex: picture text page where exam answer appears) relays to central executive; 4. central exec leads to long term memory.
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Explain Atkinson Shiffrin classic 3 stage model of memory
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1. we register fleeting sensory memories some of which are 2. processed into on-scren short term memories, a tiny fractino of which are 3. encoded for long term memory and, possibly, later retrieval.
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Explain how working memory differs from Atkinson-Shiff model
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reserachers recognized the limits of the Atkinson-Shiff model because some memory is registered automatically (bypasses the first 2 stages). These same researchers pefer working memory to shrt term memory because it emphasizes a more active role in the 2nd processing stage where we rehearse and manipulate information, associating new stimuli with older stored memories. Working-memory model includes visual-spatial and auditory subsystems, coordinated by a central executive processor that focuses attention where needed.
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automatic processing
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unconscious encoding of incidental informatino, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. Ex; remember how many times you ran into someone that day
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effortful processing
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encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. Ex: remembering chapter's concepts
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rehearsal
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the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
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spacing effect
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the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
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Ebbinghaus' retention curve
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the more he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the fewer repetitions he required to relearn it on day 2, the more time we spend learning novel information the more we retain
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serial position effect
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our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
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visual encoding
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the encoding of picture images
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acoustic encoding
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the encoding of sounds, especially the sound of words
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semantic coding
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the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.
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imagery
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mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing,especially when combined with semantic encoding
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mnemonics
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memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
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chunking
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organizing items into familiar manageable units; often occurs automatically.
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Next-in-line effect
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our tendency to forget (through failure to encode) what the person ahead of us in line has said because we are focusing on what we will say in our upcoming turn.
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self-reference effect
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we remember things better when they are relevant to us.
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iconic memory
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a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second; George Sperling's flash of letters--people could only recall half of the letters but could recall a particular row accurately
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echoic memory
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a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds ex: while watching tv. Your friend asks "what did you just say" and you can remember
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amnesia
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the loss of memory
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implicit memory
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retention independent of conscious recollection (also procedural memory) patients with amnesia can learn how to do something but they may not declare that they know that skill.
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explicit memory
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memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and 'declare'
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hippocampus
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a neural center that is located in the limbic system andhelps process explicit memories for storage
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describe duration and working capacity of short term memory
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can focus on and process only about 7 items of information. Without rehearsal information disappears within seconds from short-term memory and is forgotten.
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discuss synaptic changes that accompany memory formation and storage
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as experience strengthens the pathways between neurons, synapses transmit siglans more efficiently
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Long term potentiation
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sending neurons in the pathwas release neurotransmitters more quickly, and receiving neurons may develop additional receptors, increasing their ability to detect the incoming neurotransmitters. LTP appears to be the neural basis for learning and memory
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how can stress hormones effect memory
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enable the production of extra glucose (fuels brain activity), stress hormones alert brain to important events. The amygdala, arouses brain areas that process emotion. These emotion-triggered hormonal changes may produce indelible memories. Stronger emotional experiences make for stronger, more reliable memories such as after war experiences, or house firess or rapes. coversely, weaker emotion weakens memories.
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what areas are associated with implicit and explicit memory respectively?
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implicity-cerebellum, near the brain stem; explicit-subregions of the hippocampus and sent for storage in other areas of the brain.
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explain importance of the independence of the explicit and implicit memory systems
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damage to the hippocampus can destroy the ability to form new explicit memories without destrying older memories or the ability to form new implicit memories.
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recall
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a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve info learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
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recognition
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a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
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relearning
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a memory measure that assesss the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
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priming
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the activatoin, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. Ex: see a poster of a missing child and then see an ambiguous adult-child interactino you will be unconsciously primed to interpret that as a kidnapping. Predisposes our interaction
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déjà vu
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the eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
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mood congruent memory
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the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood. Ex: when teenagers are down their parents seem inhuman; as their mood brightens, parents morph from devils into angels.
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retrieval cues
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bits of related information we encode while processing a target piece of information. Bits are linked in some way to the context of the target and become part of a web of stored associations ex: tastes, smells,and sights present when the memory was formed
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how can context affect retrieval
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context in which we originally experienced an event can flood our memory with retrieval cues and lead to the target memory; things learned underwater are best memorized when underwater; state dependent memory--content remembered when we are drunk is best retrieved whe we are drunk
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proactive interference
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the disruptive effect of aprior learning on the recall of new information ex: you may have trouble remembering a new locker code becase of interference from the old one
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retroactive interference
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the disruptive effect fo new learning on the recall of old information ex: learning new students names interferes with the teacher's recall of the names of previous students.
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repression
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in psychoanalytic theory FREUD! the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. Current memory researchers believe that repression rarely ever occurs.
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why should we value our ability to forget/
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without the ability to forget we would be overwhelmed by out-of-date and irrelevant information.
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how does our memory fail us
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1. forgetting (absent mindedness, transcience, and blocking) 2. distortion (misattribution, suggestibility, bias) 3. intrusion (persistence of unwanted memories
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role of encoding failure in forgettign
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what we enode is only a limited portion of the sensory stimuli around us. As we age, encoding grows slower and less efficient. Without encoding, info does not enter our long-term memory store and cannot be retrieved; poor encoding will lead to poor memory
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Storage Decay
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encoded memories may fade after storage.
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Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve
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the course of forgetting is initially rapid, tehn levels of with time
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misinformation effect
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incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event "about how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other"
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source amnesia
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attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (also source misattribution). Along with misinformation effect it is a cause of many false memories ex: authors and songwriters think they are coming up with a creative idea when in fact it has already been done before and they are unintentionally plagiarizing. ex: newscaster raped me! but no...the news was just on when you were raped :(
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what levels influence the construction of memory?
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biological influences (stress, long term potentiation); psychological influence(priming, mood); social-cultural influences(misinformation effect, source amnesia)
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similarities between true and false memories
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equally durable, neither the sincerity nor the longevity of a memory signifies it is real
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differences between true and false memories
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true memories contain more details than false ones.
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Neural Networks and Memory
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words send activation to related words ex; sleep was activated in memory by a list including words such as 'pillow' and 'drowsy'
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Partial Report Paradigm
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immediate image in your mind that very rapidly decays (sensory registers and iconic memory) George Sterling experimented with a block of numbers. Could not remember more than half of numbers but when pointing to a position could remember what was there
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Structural Processing
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Is the word in capital letters? (least significant cue)
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Phonemic Processing
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does the word rhyme with___?? (2nd least significant cue)
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Semantic Processing
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what does the word mean (2nd most significant cue)
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Personal
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how does the word relate to me? (most significant cue
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Loftus's Paradigms
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Ask people about things that never happen but seem plausible. Merely being asked this in the first interview will lead to a false memory by the second interview.
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Thins that influence false memory
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1. passage of time since the event; corroboration from other people; pressure to remember; imagining the event(every time you imagine it it increases in likelihood of becoming a false memory)
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Schema Scripts
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memories of specific events are biased to fit with general beliefs about the world
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Casual bias
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People fill in casual gaps in memory. Picture of a women reaching for the bottom orange will lead ot the memory of a women standing next to oranges on the floor--gap filled in
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memory for choice sets
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people mistakenly attribute positive things to the option they've chosen…willl borrow positive aspects of the other list and attribute them to the one they have picked.
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