Psc 41 Exam 1

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Hypothesis

Back 1

tentative explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested further by further investigation

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Theory

Back 2

a set of statements or principles devised to explain a group of facts or phenomenon. Most theories that are accepted by scientists have been repeatedly tested by experiments and can be used to make predictions about natural phenomenon

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Parsimony

Back 3

Relying on the fewest and simplest possible explanations

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Falsifiable

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Can prove false

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Replicable Results (Mozart Effect)

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Have to be able to repeat the same way and get the same results

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Meta-analysis

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Combine multiple experiments to get statistically significant results for things that have low to medium occurrence.

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Basic Research

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study of phenomenon, such as psychological issues, in order to gain knowledge for its own sake.

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Applied research

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study of phenomenon, such as psychological issues, that have practical significance or potential use.

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Operational Definitions

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specifies the operation (or procedures) used to produce or measure something, ordinarily a way to give it a numerical value

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Population

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the group of individuals to whom we hope our conclusions will apply

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Sample

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Group you have data on

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Experimenter Bias

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Things experimenter does effects taking or evaluating data

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Demand Characteristics

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cues that tell a participant what is expected of him or her and what the experimenter hopes to find.

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Blind Observers

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record data without knowing what the researcher is studying.

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Placebo Control

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sham treatment that makes it very difficult for the subjects (single-blind) or the subjects and experimenter (double-blind) to know who has received the treatment and who has not.

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Single Blind

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Subjects don't know

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Double Blind

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Both don't know

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Observational Method

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Naturalistic method, case history, survey

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Naturalistic Observation

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Careful monitoring and examination of what people and animals do under more or less natural circumstances.

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Laboratory Observation

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Case Study Method

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A thorough observation and description of a single individual, appropriate only when done for an unusual condition or circumstance.

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Survey Method

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survey is a study of the prevalence of certain beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors, based on people’s responses to specific questions.

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Surveyor Bias

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Random Sample

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Correlational Method

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measure of the relationship between two variables which are both outside of the investigator’s control.

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Positive Correlation (or relationship)

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variable increase, the other variable also increase. An example being: The more you study the higher your grade.

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Negative Correlation (or relationship)

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one variable increases, the other decreases.

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Alternative Explanation

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some other variable may be causing the observed relationship between the two variables.

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Quasi-experimental Method

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comparing naturally groups of individuals. But, it is important to note that the variable of interest can’t be manipulated. (frat drinking)

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Participant (subject) Variable

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Steps in the scientific method

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1.) A hypothesis leads to predictions. 2.) An experimental method tests those predictions. 3 a.) A confirmation of a prediction supports the hypothesis. b.) A disconfirmation indicates a need to revise or discard the hypothesis. 4.) Conclusions remain tentative, especially after only one experiment. Most scientists avoid saying that their results “prove” a conclusion. Replicability is very important

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Independent Variable

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experimentor changes this variable

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Dependent Variable

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Experimentor does not change this changes due to independent variable

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Control Group

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treated the same way as the experimental group, with the exception that they do not receive the treatment the experiment is designed to test.

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Experimental Group

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that receives the treatment that the experiment is designed to test.

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Random Assignment

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make sure that every participant has the same probability as any other participant of being assigned to a given group.

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Review slide 44 Lecture 1 Table 2.3

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There are many specialized fields in Psychology. What do members of the fields listed study: 1.) Biological Psychology, 2.) Cognitive Psychology, 3.) Abnormal Psychology, 4.) Personality Theory, 5.) Social Psychology, 6.) Developmental Psychology, and 7.) Clinical Psychology

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Be able to describe what the following sources of knowledge are: 1.) superstition, 2.) intuition, 3.) authority, 4.) tenacity, 5.) rationalism, 6.) empiricism, 7.) science. Be able to provide/identify examples of each. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each? Hint

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Superstition

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Gaining knowledge through subjective feelings, belief in chance, or belief in magic events

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Intuition

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Gaining knowledge without being consciously aware of where it came from

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Authority

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Gaining knowledge from those viewed as authority figures

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Tenacity

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Gaining knowledge by clinging stubbornly to repeated ideas, despite evident to the contrary

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Rationalism

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Gaining knowledge through logical reasoning

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Empiricism

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Gaining knowledge through observations of organisms or events in the real world

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Science

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Gaining knowledge through empirical methods and logical reasoning

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4 properties of measurement

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1.) Identity 2.) Magnitude 3.) Equal Unit Size 4.) Absolute Zero

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Identity

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different objects receive different scores

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Magnitude

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ordering of the numbers reflects the ordering of the variable.

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Equal Unit Size

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the difference of 1 is the same amount throughout the entire scale

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Absolute Zero

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assignment of a score of zero means that the variable being measure is absent

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4 scales of measurement

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1.) Nominal Scale 2.) Ordinal Scale 3.) Interval Scale 4.) Ratio Scale

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Nominal Scale

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people, objects, or events are assigned to categories with no numeric properties.

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Ordinal Scale

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people, objects or events are categorized, in a rank order. That is, they are organized along some continuum.

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Interval Scale

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units of measurement (or intervals) are equivalent in size

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Ratio Scale

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has an absolute zero point. That is, the zero point must be a true zero point not an arbitrary one. It has to reflect the absence of a variable.

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Discrete Variables

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whole number categories or units that can be broken down into chunks which are distinct from one another.

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Continuous Variables

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variables that fall along a continuum. They do allow for fractionation. These variables will include decimals.

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Self-report Measures

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The subject tells you what they were, thinking, feeling, or doing.

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Behavioral Measures

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observe and record behavior

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Reactivity

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Tests

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Aptitude Tests

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Correlation Coefficient as it pertains to

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measuring reliability

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Strong, weak & no-correlation

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Achievement Tests

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Physical Measures (EEG, MEG, ECoG, PET, fMRI)

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measures of bodily activity.

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Electroencephalography (EEG)

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electrodes on the scalp to record rapid changes in the brain’s electrical activity. Has excellent temporal resolution (i.e., provides great timing information).

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Magnetoenecphalography (MEG)

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used to measure the magnetic fields produced by the electrical activity in the brain via extremely sensitive devices such as superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDS). Has excellent temporal resolution (i.e., provides great timing information).

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Electrocorticography (ECoG)

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uses electrodes placed directly on the cortex to record the rapid changes in the brain’s electrical activity. Has excellent temporal resolution (i.e., provides great timing information) AND spatial resolution

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Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

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provides a high-resolution picture of brain activity using radioactivity from a chemical injected into the bloodstream. The color of the image indicates the level of activity: red areas are most active, followed by yellow, green, and blue for the least active areas.

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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

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uses magnetic detectors outside of the head to measure the amounts of hemoglobin and oxygen in different areas of the brain. Highly active areas of the brain appear to use more oxygen in fMRI images.

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3 techniques record the electrical and magnetic activity in the brain.

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EEG, MEG, ECoG

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Which of the physical methods, have excellent temporal resolution?

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EEG, MEG, and ECoG

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Which of the physical methods only have excellent spatial resolution?

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PET and fMRI

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Which of the physical methods, have excellent temporal and spatial resolution?

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ECoG

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Signal Averaging & ERPs (event related potential)

Back 78

• Sum repetitive events time locked to a stimulus or response • The background EEG can be assumed to be random • Averaging random activity sums to zero • The Evoked Potential (EP) or Event-related Potential (ERP) emerges from the ongoing EEG • Number of trials needed is dependent on the amplitude of the EP or ERP of interest • Signal to noise is proportional to the square root of the number of sums

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Closed Field Geometry & EEG, ECoG

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Signals go in multiple directions and cancel out

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Open Field Geometry & EEG, ECoG

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when neurons are oriented in the same direction, and their extracellular field potentials sum.

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Temporal Resolution

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Time

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Spatial Resolution

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Space

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Hemodynamic Response & fMRI

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• Measures active region at any given time. • nerve consume oxygen which is carried by hemoglobin • hemodynamic response - blood releases oxygen to the active neurons at a greater rate than the inactive neurons. • The difference in magnetic susceptibility between oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin = different resonance

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Radioactive Tracer, Radioactive Decay, Postitron-

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Electron Annihilation & PET

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• Areas of high radioactivity are associated with brain activity. Measures the blood flow to different parts of the brain, which is generally believed to be correlated. • A short-lived radioactive tracer isotope, which decays by emitting a positron, which also has been incorporated into a metabolically active molecule, is injected into the living subject’s blood circulation. • After traveling a few millimeters the positron encounters and annihilated with an electron, producing a pair of annihilation (gamma) photons moving in opposite directions.

Front 86

Reliability

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refers to the consistency or stability of a measuring instrument. Reliability = true/(true + error score)

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Types of reliability

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1.) Test/Retest Reliability 2.) Alternate-Forms Reliability 3.) Split-Half Reliability 4.) Interrater Reliability

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Test/Retest Reliability

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repeat the same testing measure on two separate occasions. The obtained correlation coefficient is based on the two scores obtained on the two separate occasions.

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problems with Test/Retest Reliability

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1.) Practice effects – the person may have learned a strategy for doing the test. 2.) Short testing interval - If the interval between testing sessions is short, the person may have remembered their previous responses, making it more of a test of memory.

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Practice Effects

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Person learn strategy for the test

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Short Testing Interval

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Person remembering previous responses

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Alternate-forms Reliability

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two different forms of the same testing measure on two separate days. So, in this case the tests taken on days 1 and 2 are different but equivalent in form. The correlation coefficient would be based on the degree of relationship between the scores on the two different tests. This technique establishes the reliability of a test over time.

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Problems with Alternate-forms Reliability

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1.) Making sure that the tests are truly parallel. 2.) If the tests are truly equivalent, again there is the potential for practice effects.

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Split-half Reliability

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split the items on the measuring instrument into two halves, and you correlate the scores on each half with each other. Gives reliability of the content.

Front 95

Problems with Split-half Reliability

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1.) Determining how to divide the items so that each half of the test is indeed equivalent. a.) It is recommended to correlate the even numbered items with the odd numbered items in order to control for this issue.

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Interrater Reliability

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measure the consistency of the observations between two or more different observers (or raters). measured by the percentage of agreement between the raters. = (agreements/possible agreements) X 100

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Validity

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indicates whether the measuring instrument is measuring what it claims to measure. 1.) Content Validity 2.) Criterion Validity 3.) Construct Validity

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Content Validity

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covers a representative sample of all the domains in claims to be measuring. Usually experts are asked to review the test to make sure that it is covering all of the appropriate content.

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Criterion Validity

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extent to which a measuring instrument actually predicts a behavior or ability in a given area” (Jackson, 2006). Two Types: a.) Concurrent Validity – used to estimate present performance (Ex. Test to see if someone qualifies as a pilot at the present time). b.) Predictive Validity – used to predict future performance

Front 101

For the Physical (or Biological Measures): EEG, MEG, ECoG, PET, and fMRI you should know what each is measuring (for example, EEG measures the post-synaptic potential generated by multiple neurons as does ECoG whereas MEG measures the magnetic fields generated by the current flowing down a group of neurons). What the advantages and disadvantages of each technique are (think temporal and spatial resolution).

Front 102

Also, note that for physical measures the control condition has to be really well thought out. I gave an example of a language study using ECoG to illustrate this point. Understand why this is.

Front 103

Frequency Distribution

Back 103

table where all of the obtained scores are listed along with the frequency in which they occur

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Class Interval Frequency Distribution

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scores are combined into categories/intervals and are listed along with the frequency of which the scores that fall into that category occur. Usually you want between 10 and 20 categories

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Qualitative Variable

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no natural sense of ordering. (catagorical)

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Bar Graph

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Array of qualitative variables and values; bars not connected

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Quantitative Variable

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Measurable in numbers

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Histogram

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graphical display of tabulated frequencies. good for class intervals

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Frequency Polygon

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Connecting the middle of the peaks of a histogram for each interval.

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Descriptive Statistics

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provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. (SD, mean ...)

Front 111

Measure of Central Tendency

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Mean, median, mode

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Mode

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peak

Front 113

Measure of Variation

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Range, standard deviation, average deviation, variance, normal curve, normal distribution,

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Standard Deviation

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Average Deviation

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(sum| of x - xbar|)/N

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Variance

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square SD

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Kurtosis

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Measure of bulginess increased by a few extreme deviations from the mean rather than many small deviations.

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Mesokurtic

Back 118

curves with peaks of normal height and distributions of moderate breadth.

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Leptokurtic

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"tall and thin, with a

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Platykurtic

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short and broad

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Positively Skewed Distribution

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Tail goes to right

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Negatively Skewed Distribution

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Tail goes to left

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Z-score (standard score)

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Z = (x-xbar)/S indicates how many standard deviation units a score is from the mean of a distribution