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102 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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How does William James explain the self? |
As a private reflection: 'I' vs 'me' |
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How does Goerge Herbert Mead explain the self? |
Explains it as looking at yourself as if someone else is looking at you - i.e. 'Looking glass self' |
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What is self-concept? |
The entire collection of beliefs we hold about ourselves: relationships, identities, hobbies - they are things that define us |
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What is self-schema? |
Attributes about which we are certain and represent clearly e.g. 'I am that thing, I am not that thing' |
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What is the working self? |
Information about self that is used in a given situation - things that make up my current self concept right now |
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What is the difference between an individualistic and collectivistic culture? |
Individualistic: A culture where one acquires self worth by being unique, distinctive and independent - based on the independent self Collectivistic: acquiring self worth by fitting in, fulfilling your obligations to others - based on the interdependent self |
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What are the three types of self motives? |
Self-enhancement Self-assessment Self-verification |
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As part of the self-enhancement motive, what is the better than average effect? Give examples |
One will say they are better than average: Alicke, 1985 - people say they have more good traits than bad ones Messick et al., 1985 - we do more fair and less unfair actions than other people Sedikides et al., 2003 - Americans claim to have more individualistic traits and less collectivistic, Japanese claim to have more collectivistic traits and less individualistic. |
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What is the self-enhancement motive and what are the four examples explaining this motive? |
Having self-esteem - 'I am a person of worth' E.g. • Better-than average effect -Alicke, 1985 • Remember success, forget failure - Sedikides & Green, 2000 • People who say nice things about us are more credible - Vonk, 2002 • Self-serving and attribution bias |
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What are the self-assessment and self-verification motives? |
SA: being accurate about ourselves - seeking accuracy/certainty SV: confirming what we already think - seeking confirmation |
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Assigning causes to people's behaviours is called what? |
Attribution |
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Describe the 'naive scientist' theory of understanding attribution. |
Someone is acting a certain way and we use certain criteria in order to understand what is causing the behaviour: consensus (is everyone doing it: ‘is it me?’),distinctiveness (do they do it in specific places: ‘is it them?’) and consistency (is it every time: ‘is it something about the situation?’). If they fill out criteria then you can tell something about that person, the situation or yourself. |
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What did Jones and Harris (1967) find in their experiment 'inferring attitudes from a 'forced' essay'? |
Found that,even when told that the writers of a pro- and anti-Castro essay were forced to write the essay a certain way, when asked what the writers actual opinion of it was that the participants still believed the writers opinions matched that of the essay they wrote. |
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What is FAE? Describe it. |
Fundamental attribution error. People over-attribute behaviour to stable,dispositional causes – not accounting for the extent of social norms and situational causes |
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Under which conditions has it been found that FAE is stronger? |
• Quick judgements (Weary et al.,2001) • Cognitive busyness (Chun et al.,2002) • Good mood (Forgas, 1998) • Not knowing the much about the person (Idson & Mischel, 2001) |
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What are two different types of attribution biases? |
Actor-observer bias: can be explaining our own behaviour down to situational causes and others’ behaviour which is the same on dispositional causes Self serving bias:An example of self-serving attribution bias can be taking credit for success but denying responsibility for failure |
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Under what circumstance has it been found that people self-handicap? |
They sabotage their own performance when faced with a difficult or unsolvable task. If they don't try then they can blame their failings on something other than the fact they suck. |
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What is an attitude? |
An evaluation of some object e.g. is it good or bad? |
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What is an 'explicit attitude'? |
A person’s conscious views toward people, objects, or concepts. That is, the person is aware of the feelings he or she holds in a certain context. |
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What is an 'implicit attitude'? |
Unacknowledged attitudes external to a person’s awareness which nonetheless have measurable effects on people’s response times to stimuli |
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What did LaPierre (1934) do/find in their hospitality study? |
Completed a 10,000 mile tour of the US together with a Chinese couple. They visited 66 hotels, caravans and tourist homes and dined in184 restaurants and were refused service only once. In subsequent questionnaires, 92% of the establishments indicated that they would not acceptmembers of the ‘Chinese race’ as guest in their establishment! |
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How are attitudes and behaviours linked? |
For an attitude to predict a specific behaviour, theattitude needs to be specific • general attitude – specific behaviour e.g. Positive attitudes towards health fitness – poor predictors of jogging • Specific attitude – specific behaviour e.g. Positive attitudes about jogging – good predictor of jogging |
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What is the theory of planned behaviour (TPB)? |
The theory states that attitude toward behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, together shape an individual's behavioral intentions and behaviors |
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What is the self-perception theory? |
Bem, 1967: we inferour attitudes from our behaviour. E.g. I eat a lot of chocolate, so I must like chocolate. |
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What is the over-justification theory? |
Deci& Ryan, 1985: Incentives can undermine motivation because we won’t attribute our behaviour to intrinsic interest. |
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What is an example of embodied social cognition? |
Strack et al. (1988) asked people to view a funny cartoon while holding a pen between their lips or teeth. Participants in the ‘teeth’ condition rated the cartoon as funny, arguably because this facial expression facilitates smiling compared tothe ‘lips’ condition that inhibits smiling |
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Dutton & Aron (1974) performed a study looking at misattribution of arousal, what did they do/find? |
Participants approached by interviewer as they crossed a bridge - bridge is either high and skinny, or low and wide. Interviewer gives their phone number at the end of the study. If it's a scary bridge they are more likely to call a female interviewer. If it's a control bridge, they are more likely to call a male interviewer. |
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Look up the Prophecy from Planet Clarion as I can't be assed |
There's a link on the notes |
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Describe cognitive dissonance. |
Used to describe thefeelings of discomfort that result from holding two conflicting beliefs. Whenthere is a discrepancy between beliefs and behaviours, something must change inorder to eliminate or reduce the dissonance. |
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What did Fistinger (1957) find when he put participants through a boring study and gave them different degrees of reward to tell others the experiment was interesting? Why did he justify the results? |
Participants rated theexperiment as less boring when they were paid a $1. If youare paid $20 then you can use the fact you were paid lots of money in order tojustify to yourself why you lied to the other person. If you were only paid $1then you will try to convince yourself that the experiment was less boring inorder to make yourself feel like you were lying less. |
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What did Aronson et al. (1994) find about hypocrisy when involved in behaviour change? |
Getting participants to speak on camera to people about aids and the importance of condom use, whilst also reminding them of their past failures when it came to using a condom, caused the participants to collect more free condoms at the end of the experiment than any of the other conditions. |
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In the Elaboration Likelihood Model, by Petty and Cacioppo (1986), what are the names of the two routes they proposed that people process persuasive messages? |
Central Route Peripheral Route |
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What is the model called that describes how we process persuasive messages? |
Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty and Cacioppo, 1986) |
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What are the detailed routes proposed in the Elaboration Likelihood Model for processing persuasive messages? |
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What factors are considered when determining the route followed in the Elaboration Likelihood Model for processing persuasive messages? |
Motivation: Involvement in the topic and need for cognition, i.e. how much do you want to independently think about the subject? Ability: - Expertise - are you knowledgable in the subject - Message difficulty - can you understand the message? - Distraction - did you get distracted? |
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What did Petty et al. (1967) find about the effects of message strength and distraction on persuasion? |
Participants who were not distracted were more persuaded by the strong arguments than the weak arguments. Participants who were distractedtended to be persuaded by both messages. |
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What are the problems with using fear as a method of persuasion? |
- “Fear control” rather than risk control: Scrutinise and reject themessage. Deny its relevance tooneself. Feel fear but this causes the person to want to undermine the message and remove its relevance from them - Self-affirmation: We need to protect our‘self worth and integrity’ – which could motivate defensive processing |
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What did Harris et al. (2007) find when comparing self affirmation and defensiveness? |
Control group were not self-affirmed. Other group underwent self-affirmed manipulation (hearing nice things about themselves). When shown graphic photos of smokers, the control group were seen to be significantly more defensive against the photos. Self-affirmed smokers were more keen to cut down after image viewing. |
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Do 'many hands make light work'? |
If the group is a collection of random people, unrelated in any way then the individuals within will work less hard, so no. If the group is a collection of people who identify as a group, then yes. If they all are motivated for the cause, then yes. |
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What are the two theories that explain why individuals in a group may not work as efficiently as they do on their own? |
Process losses - failure to coordinate yourself in the ideal manner because there are many people around you. Social loafing - loss of motivation, letting other group members pick up your slack. |
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What did Latane (1979) find about the effect of clapping or cheering alone or in a group of six? |
People making noise in a group of six produce 60% less noise than when they're alone. |
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When testing students pulling a rope in either a group of seven or individually, what did Ringelmen (1913) find out? |
Individually one student could pull 85kg, when in a group of seven however, they could notpull seven times as much weight, they pulled less. |
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What are the two levels of self? |
Personal identity - 'me', individualistic Social identity - 'us', your commonality binds you together. |
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What happens to people when 'deindividuation' occurs? |
When you are part of a group you have a lowered concern for social evaluation, almost a ‘cloak of anonymity’. Irrational behaviour in violation of norms of appropriateness and unconstrained anti-social behaviour. |
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Name three "classic" deindividuation studies. Give the names of the experimenters a go but it's not really necessary |
• Halloween sweet theft (Diener et al., 1976) • Masked aggression (Zimbardo, 1969) • Ku Klux Klan and nurses (Johnson & Downing, 1979) |
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What are norms? |
Uniformities in peoples behaviour arising through interaction. They are descriptive (they describe what people do) and prescriptive (tell you what to do unless society will disapprove of you). |
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In an experiment on US college students who were randomly assigned to conservative or liberal accommodation, how did this affect their attitudes? |
After a year at the college and having beenexposed to the different norms, the dormitory students become significantly more liberal in their attitudes, especially those in the liberal accommodation. |
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Name and describe two types of influence. |
Normative influence: Wanting to be liked, accepted and therefore changing your own opinions to match others Informational influence: Wanting to be right |
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Something about conformity bias |
Look it up - I'm busy |
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According to the 'genetic' model why might we follow the minority opinion in a group? |
• Break the consensus • Attract attention • Set out an alternative • Show commitment &certainty • Don’t compromise • Make the majority move towards their minority position to avoid conflict |
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If a participant in a group was to follow the minorities opinion, what quality would the minorities side need? |
CONSISTENCY (To be said as written) |
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What is the 'in-group sensitivity effect'? |
Criticism of thegroup is more acceptable when it comes from an ingroup member |
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As a theory of leadership, what is the contingency theory? |
Emphasises the matchbetween leader and situation. For low or high situationalcontrol, task-oriented leaders are more effectiveFor intermediatesituational control, relationship-oriented leaders are more effective |
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What is the social identity theory of leadership? |
Leaders must:
• Be seen to promote groupinterests • Be prototypical of thegroup they wish to lead • Be ‘entrepreneurs ofidentity’: actively craft a sense of shared identity with those theywish to lead |
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What is the 'agentic state'? |
• Lessened moralconcern • Absorption in narrowtechnical tasks • Loss ofresponsibility Caused by participant having a leader |
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Describe the 3-process theory of power. |
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Define a) Prejudice b) Stereotypes c) Discrimination |
a) Negative attitudes and emotions towards other groups b) Negative beliefs about another group c) Behaviour - treating other group badly because of their group |
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What is the 'authoritarian personality'? |
Person particularly susceptible to Facist Propaganda. Irrational prejudice serves hidden psychological needs caused by particularly strict upbringing as a child. F-scale: how likely someone is to be a fascist psychopath. |
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Which of the experiments, that we also looked at in first year, was the Robbers Cave Experiments? |
Sherif et al. - groups of 'lovely' children made to hate each other and then made to like each other again. |
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What is Sherif's 'Realistic Group Conflict' Theory? |
Material relations between social groups determine attitudes - his argument against the authoritarian personality. |
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Describe the stereotype content model.
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What is the name of the type of sexism men have against women and what are the two sub-categories? Describe them a lil bit, if you please.
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Ambivalent sexism - is a mixed type as men do not dislike women, just consider them 'less good' at things. Benevolent sexism - Women are to be protected and adored by men |
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Why is benevolent sexism harmful?
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Men who are BS find it easier to excuse domestic violence. Women exposed to BS (hehe) have increased deference to men, undermined confidence by increased quantity of intrusive thoughts and have self esteem based upon physical attractiveness and not competence. |
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List some examples of when stereotype threat has affected performance on certain groups when they are made aware of the stereotype that is associated to them
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Gender and maths Ethnicity and verbal task performance Elderly and memory Men and social sensitivity Women and driving Socioeconomic background and intelligence |
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What is stereotype threat?
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When performance is undermined by the fear of confirming a negative stereotype that is associated to a certain group of people that you belong to.
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What is out-group favouritism? What experiment was used to show this?
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The perception that the out-group, the group that is not your own, is more superior to yours. Usually evidence in those of low status groups.
Clark & Clark's 'Doll studies' - black and white kids, with black and white dolls are asked which one is nicer. Both groups said the white one. |
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In terms of implicit favouritism, what was found when comparing white and black peoples attitudes towards white and black people?
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1. Only white participants show clear in-group favouritism. 2. When completing a first person shooter computer simulation, participants were asked to shoot armed suspects. Both black and white participants shot black suspects more readily. |
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What is the 'system justification theory'?
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Unfair social systems are supported, even by disadvantaged groups as people want to justify the status quo of their community in order to prevent themselves feeling uncomfortable.
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What is the problem with the system justification theory?
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If this was the case then we wouldn't see minorities trying to fight for their rights in certain countries and in history.
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What is 'collective action'?
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When a member acts on behalf of the group in order to challenge the disadvantage that their group faces.
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What are the main antecedents of collective action?
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A sense of injustice Efficacy - know that the disadvantage can be changed Identity - being related and committed to the group |
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What is the name given to the gap between what we have and what we think we are entitled to, caused by a comparison to someone else?
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relative deprivation
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What are the two types of relative deprivation?
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1. Individual/egoistic 2. Group/fraternalistic - this leads to collective action |
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What are the four different kinds of influence on a person? |
Ideological - culture, society norms etc Positional - social status, group membership etc Interpersonal - between individuals Intrapersonal - within the individual, perceptions, sense of self |
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What is the empathy-altruism hypothesis in relation to theories of helping? |
Compassion, sympathy and tenderness drive helping. |
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How can empathy be viewed as a trait or skill? |
Trait: some people are empathetic, some aren't. Skill: 8 week training in compassion meditation -> increased performance on empathy task. Also fMRI evidence of increased activation in areas associated with theory of mind/empathy |
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What is the bystander effect? |
The presence of others in a situation inhibits helping in emergencies. |
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Latané and Darley argued that as the no. of bystanders increases, people are less like to... |
... notice the problem ... interpret it as a problem ... assume responsibility |
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In a study be Harari et al, (1985), when witnessing a rape on university campus, how did people react? |
People would generally help, men would particularly help and even more so if part of a group of men. |
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In Levine et al's 2011 study on 3rd party intervention in incidents of public aggression, what did they find happened in aggressive incidents with more people present? |
More 'de-escalating behaviours Less violence Aggression is best diffused when several people intervene in turn |
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How does being in a group of strangers compared to a group of friends affect how often we help others? |
Strangers: number reduces helping Friends: number increases helping |
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Female confederateinterrupts a ‘male experimenter’ and asks for help with her own experiment. Hostile reaction froma male experimenter. How many participants help her after the main experiment?Participants are: • Alone • In single sex group of 3 • With 2 members of the oppositesex (minority) Why? |
Alone, men and women will offer equal amounts of help. In a single sex group women are farmore likely to help as this makes the ‘women’ identity salient and they all relate to each other. In the minority, men are far more likely to help as they want to show off in front of their lady friends. |
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What bull***t conclusions were made by Dovido et al. (2002) after testing the effects of bystanders on white participants helping white and black participants? |
They will help if there are no bystanders, or if there are bystanders and the victim is white but they are far less likely to help if the victim is black and there are bystanders. The presence ofbystanders provides White participants with non-prejudiced rationalisations fornot helping a Black victim |
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When do people help the outgroup? |
When the image of the in-group is at stake. When the help is dependency orientated (rather than autonomy/empowerment oriented) or when outgroup is in an inferior, non-threatening position |
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When might a group refuse outgroup help? |
• Awareness of a benevolent sexist stereotype of women as dependent may lead women to reject help from men (Wakefield et al., 2013) • Low status groups may reject help that is perceived as dependency oriented if status relations are unstable (Nadler & Halabi, 2006) |
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What is aggression? |
Behaviour that is intended to harm another person with the knowledge that the target is motivatedto avoid the action |
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How can aggression be explained as an instinct? |
Evolutionary pressure for a ‘fighting instinct’ much like instincts to eat and have sex. Builds up within the person until there is an opportunity for release via aggression. Therefore there is a normality and inevitability of aggression. |
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What is the frustration-aggression hypothesis? |
Aggression stems from frustration: goal-directed behaviour is blocked or threatened Frustration -> -ve Affect (anger) ->Aggression |
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What is catharsis? |
Releasing aggressive energy through some ‘harmless’ substitute for actual aggression |
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What can come as a result of catharsis in an individual? Why? |
An increase in aggression. This is because aggression is often rewarding for the perpetrator, reinforcing the aggressive behaviour, i.e. catharsis ‘trains’ you to be aggressive. |
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How is self-esteem related to aggression? |
Two sides of self esteem linked to it differently: superiority -> high aggression social inclusion -> low aggression But both show positive self-esteem. People with high self-esteem respond worse when self-esteem is threatened. |
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If you are a narcissist, what traits do you have? |
Extremely high but insecure self-esteem. Exaggerated feeling of self-importance and superiority. Low implicit self-esteem. Need for validation from others. Theyhave aggressive reactions to criticism and not just against thesource of the criticism! |
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In the Bobo doll experiment, children imitated behaviour they had just witnessed against a doll. Under what conditions was the highest imitation seen? |
Live adults, followed by videos of adults, followed by cartoons |
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How many violent acts has the average American viewed by the age of 13? |
100,000 |
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In a meta-analysis, correlations were rated in how likely one subject was to result in another. The top four were: - condom use and sexually transmitted HIV - smoking and lung cancer - passive smoking and lung cancer at work - media violence and aggression Put them in order of correlation, highest to lowest. |
- smoking and lung cancer - media violence and aggression - condom use and sexually transmitted HIV - passive smoking and lung cancer at work media violence and aggression |
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How does media violence influence aggression? |
Learning thatviolence is rewarding as those in video games and films succeed via violentacts. Hostile attributionbias and ‘mean world syndrome’ are also involved – this is when people viewothers’ ambiguous actions as a personal attack against you. Desensitisation toviolence: supported by fMRIevidence |
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How many school shootings are related to rejection and bullying by schoolmates? |
13 out of 15 |
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Why is rejection so strongly linked to aggression? |
• Frustration • When accepted, people haveincentive not to aggress (keeps relationships intact) • Intimidating excluders intonot rejecting/abandoning them • Re-establishing efficacyand control |
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How is normal aversion to extreme violence overcome? |
• ‘moral self-sanctions areselectively disengaged from inhumane conduct’ • Euphemism, sanitizinglanguage • Displacement ofresponsibility – ‘we don’t have a choice’ • Minimizing the consequences& advantageous comparison ‘yes we’ve killed this many people, but they havekilled way more, they’re much worse’ • Dehumanising the victim |
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What are the two ways of dehumanising people? |
Viewing people as: animals - denial of civility & culture objects - denial of human nature, warmth and emotion |
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What did Goff et al. (2008) find in his study on 'dehumanisation and the death penalty'? |
Ape-related language (such as calling them brutish) innewspaper reporting of death penalty cases where the defendant was Black. This language related tothe likelihood of defendant receiving the death penalty. Dehumanisation maycontribute to the disproportionate use of the death penalty against Blackpeople |
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What is 'culture of honour'? |
Violence to restore one’shonor is supported by norms, e.g. • Protection ofproperty, responding to insults, infidelity • Linked toemotion of shame Might develop in vacuum of lawenforcement – need for a ‘hard man’ reputation |
