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67 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Norman Triplett
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- conducted the first official social psychology type experiment in 1897 on social facilitation
- he found that cyclists performed better when paced by others than when they rode alone |
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Kurt Lewin
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- considered by many to be the father of social psychology
- applied Gestalt ideas to social behavior - conceived of FIELD THEORY, which is the total influences upon individual behavior - a person's LIFE SPACE is the collection of forces upon the individual - Valence, vector and barrier are forces in the life space |
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Fritz Heider
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- founder of ATTRIBUTION THEORY and BALANCE THEORY
- Attribution theory - the study of how people infer the causes of others' behavior. People will actually attribute intentions and emotions to just about anything - even moving geometrical shapes on a screen - Balance theory - the study of how people make their feelings and/or actions consistent to preserve psychological homeostasis |
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Fundamental Attribution Error
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- the common tendency to think that the actions of others result from internal disposition rather than situation
- predictably, we go easier on ourselves and attribute our own behavior to circumstance |
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Actor-observer attributional divergence
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- the tendency for the person who is doing the behavior to have a different perspective on the situation than a person watching the behavior
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Self-serving bias
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- interpreting one's own actions and motives in a positive way, blaming situations for failures and taking credit for successes
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Illusory Correlation
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- assuming that two unrelated things have a relationship
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Hindsight Bias
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- is believing after the fact that you knew something all along
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Halo Effect
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- is think that if someone has one good quality than he has only good qualities
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Self-fulfilling Prophesy
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- occurs when one's expectations somehow draw out, or in a sense cause, the very behavior that is expected.
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False consensus bias
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- assuming that most other people think as you do
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Lee Ross
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- studied subjects who were first made to believe a statement and then later told it was false. The subjects continued to believe the statement if they had processed it and devised their own logical explanation for it.
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Richard Nisbett
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- showed that we lack awareness for why we do what we do
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Base-rate Fallacy
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- overestimating the general frequency of things we are most familiar with
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M.J. Lerner's JUST WORLD BIAS
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- the belief that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people
- it is uncomfortable for people to accept that bad things happen to good people, so they blame the victim |
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Ellen Langer
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- studied the ILLUSION OF CONTROL, or belief that you can control things you actually have no influence on. This illusion is the driving force behind manipulating the lottery, gambling, and superstition.
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Oversimplification
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- the tendency to make simple explanations for complex events
- people also hold onto original ideas about cause even when new factors emerge |
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Representativeness Heuristic
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- using a shortcut about typical assumptions to guess at an answer rather than relying on actual logic
- for example, one might assume that a woman who is six feet tall and beautiful is more like to be a model than a lawyer, even though there are many more lawyers than models |
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Leon Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory
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- suggests that it is uncomfortable for people to have beliefs that do not match their actions
- after making a difficult decision people are motivated to back their actions up by touting corresponding beliefs - also, the less the act is justified by circumstance, the more we feel the need to jsutify it by bringing our attitude in line with the behavior |
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Daryl Bem's Self-Perception Theory
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- offers an alternative explanation to cognitive dissonance
- Bem asserted that when people are unsure of their beliefs, they take their cues from their own behavior (rather than actually changing their beliefs to match their actions). For example, if a man demanded $1,000 to work on a Saturday, he would probably realize that he does not like his job all that much. |
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Overjustification effect
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- follows from self-perception theory
- is the tendency to assume that we msut not want to do things that we are paid or compensated to do. A person who loves to sing and is then paid to do so will lose pleasure in singing because the activity is now overjustified. |
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Gain-loss Theory
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- suggests that people act in order to obtain gain and avoid loss
- people feel most favorably toward situations that start out negatively but end positively (even when compared to completely positive situations) |
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Social Exchange Theory
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- suggests that humans interact in ways that maximize reward and minimize loss
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Self-presentation
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- is an important influence on behavior. We act in ways that are in line with our attitudes or in ways that will be accepted by others
- Self-monitoring is the process by which people pay close attention to their actions - Impression management is behaving in ways that might make a good impression |
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Social Facilitation
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- is the tendency for the presence of others to either enhance or hinder performance
- ROBERT ZAJONC found that the presence of others helps with easy tasks but hinders complex tasks. |
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Social Comparison
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- is evaluating one's own actions, abilities, opinions and ideas by comparing them to those of others. Because those "others" are generally familiar people from our own social group or strata, social comparison has been used as an argument against MAINSTREAMING.
- When children with difficulties are thrown into classes with children without such difficulties, this comparison may result in lower self-esteem for the children with problems. |
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Role
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- the set of behavior norms that seem suitable for a particular person
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Morton Deutsch
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- Used the PRISONER'S DILEMMA and the TRUCKING COMPANY GAME story to illustrate the struggle between cooperation and competition
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Prisoner's Dilemma
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- The premise is that, if two criminal cohorts are detained separately and charged with the crime, the best strategy is for neither to talk. This way, no information will be given. But because a person can never be sure what the other might do (perhaps plea bargain and testify against him), remaining silent is a gamble that requires trust. Therefore, most people spill the beans when they should simply remain silent.
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Trucking Company Game
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- Describes two companies that can choose to cooperate (and agree on high fixed prices) or compete against each other with lower prices. The best strategy would be to cooperate and agree on high prices, but because one company cannot totally trust the other, they choose to compete. It's the same as the prisoner's dilemma but in economic terms
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Equity Theory
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- Is the idea that people feel most comfortable in situations in which rewards and punishments are equal, fitting, or highly logical.
- Overbenefited people tend to feel guilty. Random or illogical punishments make people nervous. |
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Stanley Milgram
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- proposed STIMULUS-OVERLOAD THEORY, which explains why urbanites are less prosocial than country people are; urbanites don't need any more interaction
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Reciprocal Interaction
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- the constant exchange of influences between people
- is a constant factor in our behavior |
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Conformity
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- Is going along with real or perceived group pressure
- People may go along publicly but not privately (COMPLIANCE) or change actions and beliefs to conform (ACCEPTANCE). - An individual is most likely to conform when: 1) There is a majority opinion, 2) The majority has a unanimous position, 3) The majority has highg status, or the individual is concerned with her own status, 4) The situation is in public, 5) The individual was not previously committed to another pesition, 6) The individual has low self esteem, 7) The individual scores high on a measure of authoritarianism |
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Reactance
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- Is the refusal to conform that may occur as a result of a blatant attempt to control. Also, people will often not conform if they are forewarned that others will attempt to change them.
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Stanley Milgram
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- Is known for his very famous study in which subjects were ordered to administer "painful electrical shocks" to others in an adjacent room.
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Philip Zimbardo
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- Later found that people who were wearing hoods (and so deindividuated) were more willing to administer higher levels of shock than people without hoods. Also, in his classic prison simulation experiments, Zimbardo found that normal subjects could easily be transformed into sadistic prison guards.
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Solomon Asch
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- Had subjects listen to the staged "opinion" of others about which lines on a board were equal. The subjects then gave their own opinon. Subjects conformed to the clearly incorrect opinion of others about 33 percent of the time. The unanimity seemed to be the influential factor.
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Muzafer Zherif
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- found that people's descriptions of the autokinetic effect were influenced by others' descriptions
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R.E. Petty and J.T. Cacioppo
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- ELABORTION LIKELIHOOD model of persuasion suggests that people who are very involved in an issue listen to the strength of the arguments in the issue rather than more superficial factors, such as the characteristics of the speaker.
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Sleeper Effect
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- Explains why persuasive communication from a source of low credibility may become more acceptable after the fact.
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McGuire's Inoculation Theory
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- Asserts that people's beliefs are vulnerable if they have never faced challenge. Once they have experienced a challenge to their opinions, however, they are less vulnerable. Challenge is like a vaccination.
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The Kitty Genovese case
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- the murder of a woman witnessed by scores of people
- led to the investigation of the BYSTANDER EFFECT, or why people are less likely to help when others are present. |
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Diffusion of Responsibility
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- Is the tendency that the larger the group, the less likely individuals in the group will act or take responsibility. As in the Genovese case, the more bystanders nearby, the less likely anyone will help. Everyone waits for someone else to act. This is the result of deindividuation.
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Social Loafing
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- The tendency to work less hard in a group as a result of diffusion of responsibility. It is guarded against when each individual is closely monitored.
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Philip Zimbardo
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- Found that antisocial behavior positively correlates with population density. He left broken-down cars in New York City and Palo Alto, California, monitored by hidden cameras. The car in New York City was stripped and destroyed within 10 minutes; the car in Palo Alto was untouched for three days.
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Robber's Cave Experiment
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- Two groups of boys at camp.
- Showed that group conflict is most effectively overcome by the need for cooperative attention to a higher superordinate goal. |
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Group Polarization
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- Studied by James Stoner
- Is the concept that group discussion generally serves to strengthen the already dominant point of view. - This explains the RISKY SHIFT, or why groups will take greater risks than individuals. |
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Groupthink
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- Studied by IRVING JANIS, is likely to occur in a group that has unquestioned beliefs, pressure to conform, invulnerability, censors, cohesiveness within, isolation from without, and a strong leader.
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Kenneth and Mamie Clark
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- Conducted the famous DOLL PREFERENCE STUDIES which factored into the 1954 Supreme Court case, Brown v. the Board of Education. The studies demonstrated the negative effects that group segregation had on African-American children's self-esteem. The African-American children thought the white dolls were better.
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In relative order of importance, we are attracted to other people who:
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1) Are near to us (propiniquity)
2) Are physically attractive 3) Have attitudes similar to our own 4) Like us back |
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Richard Lazarus
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- Studied stress and coping.
- He differentiated between problem-focused coping (which is changing the stresser) and emotion-focused coping (which is changing our response to a stressor) |
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Objective self-awareness
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- Is achieved through self-perception, high self-monitoring, internality, and self-efficacy.
- Some experimenters will facilitate objective self-awareness by having subjects perform tasks while looking in a mirror. Deindividuation woul work against objective self-awareness. |
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Door-in-the-face
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- Is a sales tactic in which people ask for more than they would ever get and then "settle" for less (the realistic amount hoped for)
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Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
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- Is how doing a small favor makes people more willing to do larger ones later.
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Social Support Network
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- Effect on mental health have emerged as an area of study that combines social and clinical ideas.
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J. Rodin and E. Langer
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- Showed that nursing home residents who have plants to care for have better health and lower mortality rates.
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Bogus Pipeline
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- Is an instrument that measures physiological reactions in order to measure the truthfulness of attitude self-reporting.
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Peter Principle
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- Is the concept that people are promoted at work until they reach a position of incompetence, the position in which they remain.
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Stuart Valins
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- Studied environmental influences on behavior.
- Architecture matters. Students in long-corridor dorms feel more stressed and withdrawn than students in suite-style dorms. |
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Leonard Berkowitz
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- Made the FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION HYPOTEHSIS, which posits a relationship between frustration in achieving a goal (no matter how small) and the show of aggression.
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M. Rokeach
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- Studied racial bias and the similarity of beliefs. People prefer to be with like-minded people more than with like-skinned people. Also, racial bias decreases as attitude similarity between people increases.
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M. Fischbein and I. Ajzen
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- Are known for their work on attitudes.
- They found that general attitudes will not predict specific behavior, but specific, relevant attitudes will predict specific behavior. |
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Hazel Markus
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- Has found that Eastern countries, in contrast to Western, value interdependence over independence.
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Elaine Hatfield
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- Two basic loves are passionate love and companionate love.
- PASSIONATE love is intense longing for the union with another and a state of profound physiological arousal. - COMPANIONATE LOVE is the affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply entwined. |
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Paul Ekman
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- Has argued that humans have six basic emotions: sadness, happiness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust.
- He drew this conclusion from cross-cultural studies that show that individuals in a variety of different cultures were able to recognize facial expressions corresponding to the six aforementioned emotions. - Researchers code facial expression for emotiosn using the Facial Action Coding System or FACS coding. Such coding can help determine whether a smile is genuine or whether it is fake. |
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Reciprocal Socialization
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- Is when two parties (such as parents and children) adapt to or are socialized by each other. For example, we say that parents or adults are socialized by youngsters when parents pick up new lingo, and that children are socialized by parents when children learn to respect rules and traditions.
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