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90 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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The Oasis Hypothesis
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Gordon Childe--
The reason people started living in settlements was because during a dry spell, the only liveable place was near oases. The enforced clustering of humans, animals, and plants led to the domestication of all three (doesn't explain why/how domestication took place without oases of habitation) |
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The Sedentary Hypothesis
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Carl Sauer--
Domestication began because of rich resources that freed people to experiment, giving rise to domestication he thought poisonous plants would be the first domesticated |
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The Readiness Hypothesis
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Robert Braidwood--
Humans became increasingly familiar with plants and animals in their area and began to domesticate them, but does not explain how domestication happened |
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The Coevolution Hypothesis
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David Rindos--
Humans unintentionally promoted dispersal of certain types of plants by weeding, storing, or irrigating particular wild resources |
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The Dump Heap Hypothesis
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Edgar Anderson--
Garbage sites may have been the breeding grounds for various species. They would have been open sites, rich in nutrients. Therefore, agriculture may have started accidentally. |
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The Demographic Hypothesis
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Ester Boserup--
Demographic pressure promotes innovation and higher productivity in the use of land...Productivity increases when resources become more scarce |
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The Marginal Habitat Hypothesis
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Lewis Binford/Kent Flannery---
Linked increasing population pressure to environmental change--when the sea levels rose, coastal people moved inland and led to population pressure on groups already there, so needed to cultivate to produce enough food you start off in a resource rich area, then as population increases you have to expand and move out as resources are dried up |
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The Sedentism and Population Growth Hypothesis
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Donald O. Henry--
Some groups of nomadic foragers were sedentary...focusing on particularly productive, locally abundant wild foods the more sedentary, the higher the population |
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Competition
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Brian Hayden
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Recognizing Domesticated Plants
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1. Seed Size (bigger)
2. Seed Coat Thickness (thinner) 3. Seed-dispersal mechanisms and terminal clusters 4. Geographic Distribution *strong stem areas where the seeds attach and larger edible parts |
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Recognizing Domesticated Animals
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1. Size Selection (smaller)
2. Geographic Distribution 3. Population Characteristics 4. Osteological Changes (weaker bones, less exercise) |
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Natufian
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A mesolithic culture--unusual because it was sedentary, or semi-sedentary before the introduction of agriculture
microlith tools |
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Natufian Hyonim Cave
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Featured circular rooms with prepared floors, with a thick midden of lithics, ground stone objects, and worked bone. There were several hearths, and single graves located in abandoned rooms or outside of inhabited rooms
Where neanderthals used to inhabit in Jerusalem |
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Ali Kosh
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9450 to 8700 Bus Mordeh Phase (10% domesticated seeds. lots of wild animals. first evidence of domestication)
8700 to 7950 Ali Kosh Phase (40% domesticated seeds) 7950 to 7550 Mohammad Jaffar Phase (80% domesticated seed) |
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Ajuereado Phase
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(12,000-9,000)
hunting small, impermanent sites, microbands of fewer than 10 people, hunting antelope and jackrabbit. Also turtles, rodents, gophers, and birds. At end of phase Valley became much dryer and it is thought that hunting became less important and there was increase in reliance on wild plant foods. Tehuacan Valley Sequence |
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El Riego
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(9,000 to 7,000) continued to rely on wild plants, squash, beans, chili peppers, amaranth (a grain), and avocado. More complex settlement system--seasonal movement, groups become larger
Tehuacan Valley Sequence |
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Coxcatlan
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(7000-5,400)
continued shifts to larger groups and continued reliance on wild plant foods. NEW EVIDENCE PUSHES EARLIEST DOMESTICATED MAIZE BACK TO 6,000 years ago Tehuacan Valley Sequence |
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Abejas
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(5,400 to 4,300) increasingly sedentism--larger semipermanent villages or home bases evident. during this phase see first domesticated plants in diet. Squash and maize date to this period and see OLDEST MAIZE AT 4700 YEARS AGO (although even data suggests even earlier)
Tehuacan Valley Sequence |
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Purron
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(4,300 - 3,500)
see first use of b b pottery Tehuacan Valley Sequence |
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Ajalpan
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(3,500 - 2850) based on foraging for wild foods, and on domesticated maize, beans, and squash. Degree of sedentism increases. See simple irrigation canals confirms importance of agriculture and abandonment of a nomadic way
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Teostine
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Early precursor to corn
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Mesolithic
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In Europe and Israel, begins with the end of the Ice Age and ends with the beginning of farming/agriculture
Dates vary (10,000-7,000 ya in Europe and even earlier in the Middle East) |
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Archaic
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Like Mesolithic it is associated with changes at the end of the Ice Age and ends with the beginning of farming
Dates vary across the Americas but range between 9,000 to 3,000 ya |
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Mount Sandel, Ireland (Mesolithic)
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Radiocarbon dates indicate that Mount Sandel is one of the earliest human occupations in Ireland
stone tools recovered from the site include a huge variety of microliths (tiny stone flakes and tools) site may have been occupied year round, but if so, the settlement was tiny including no more than 15 people at a time |
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Star Carr, England (Mesolithic)
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Most informative Mesolithic site in Great Britain
-Britain's oldest structure -21 red deer stag skull caps (may have been head-dresses) and nearly 200 projectile or harpoon points made of red deer antler |
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Vedbaek, Denmark (Mesolithic)
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cemetery site included the remains of 17 people in rectangular or oval pits
-early evidence of social stratification among hunter-gatherers because of grave goods in the pit of a woman and child |
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Vaenget Nord, Denmark (Mesolithic)
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small and specialized camp for Mesolithic inhabitants
plant and animal remains indicate utilization of a variety of environments, presumably during the warmer months of the year |
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Koster Site, Illinois (Archaic)
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some of the oldest evidence of the use of ground stone for food preparation
the establishment of a cemetery for deceased the presence of domesticated dogs evidence that people had special rituals for burying the dead, including positioning them in prepared oval pits |
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Carrier Mills, Illinois (Archaic)
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Settlement increased dramatically
-occupants left evidence containing many artifacts and burials |
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Ice Free Corridor
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-Route into the Americas
-Clovis culture hunters arrived in North America chasing after megafauna (mammoth and bison) through a corridor between the ice slabs - between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice masses -ice retreating 18,000 to 8,000 years ago |
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Clovis Culture
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Paleo-American culture of central and north America; distinguished chiefly by sharp fluted projectile points made of obsidian or chalcedony
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Cayo District
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largest district in Belize
-remains of giant sloth bone -remains of mastodon molars -remains of horse tooth -remains of tusks |
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Wilson-Leonard Site
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-evidence of early Clovis culture
burned rock ovens found here |
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Colby, Wyoming
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animal remains
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Meadowcroft Rock shelter
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12,000 years ago
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Topper Site, South Carolina
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artifacts at this site may predate the Clovis culture (previously believed to be the first people in North America) by 3,000 years
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Paisley Cave, Oregon
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corpolites were dated using radiocarbon methods (14,300 ya)
served as the stone age equivalent of a public toilet |
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Monte Verde, Chile
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Monte Verde is viewed as the remains of a community whose distance ancestor had entered the New World along the Beringian coast, obviously long before 12,500
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Monte Alegre, Brazil
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cave paintings 11,000 ya
- charred plants and animal remains from the lowest levels of the cave carbon dated to 11,000 ya. -these findings indicate that the cave's earliest visitors foraged for plant foods and hunted small game common to tropical areas |
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Kennewick Man, Washington
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"Caucasoid" features, 9,300 ya
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Jericho, Palestinian territories
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-oldest continuously inhabited city in the world
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Jericho economy
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-Location near permanent springs and oasis in the midst of hot, arid Jordan valley
-abundant gazelle bones -artifacts for cereal processing (domesticated emmer wheat found at other PPNA locations) -Obsidian important stone--> interconnected Neolithic trade -purpose of the wall:fortification against enemies or against nature? - The use of the Jericho Wall and Tower was likely defense against flood water and mud flows from the Jordan River |
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Catal Huyuk, Turkey
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Population approx 5-6,000
-7,000 BC -population growth and development of trade networks |
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An interconnected Neolithic world: the role of trade networks
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-Obsidian controlled by a source in Catal Huyuk was widely traded in the Mediterranean and throughout Southeast Asia
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The Olemec Heartland
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-Home of the Olmec culture which became widespread over Mesoamerica
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Tuxtla Mountains
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-Volcanic belt and mountain range
-used as a basalt source for the Olmecs during the early formative period |
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Olmec Colossal heads
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-once theorized to be ballplayers, it is now generally accepted that these heads are portraits of rulers, perhaps dressed as ballplayers
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Olmec Las Limas Figure
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-a figure of a youth holding a limp were-jaguar baby
-famous for its incised representations of Olmec supernaturals and is considered by some a "Rosetta stone" of Olmec religion |
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La Venta
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-most famous of the monumental artifacts are the four colossal heads
-4 altars |
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Caral, Peru
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-Was a large settlement in the Supe Valley
-the most ancient city of the Americas |
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Chavin de Huantar
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Temple Architecture--U-shaped form with sunken circular plaza similar to coastal architectural plans
circular plaza features stone frieze depicting a procession of jaguars and mythical figures moving toward the central staircase |
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Growth of Chavin as a pilgrimage center
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-associated wealth of site reflects offerings from travelers and pilgrims
-new technologies in goldworking and textiles associated with the spread of complex Chavin motifs |
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The rise of cities in Mesopotamia
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Responses to population growth following the devlopment of agriculture in Southwest Asia
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Ubaid culture, southern Mesopotamia
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5500-4200 B.C.
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Ubaid household economy
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-agriculture based upon floodplain irrigation
-Main crops: barley, einkorn wheat, and date palm -Flax probably grown for fiber--abundance of spindle whorls in many sites -Cattle were the principal domesticated animal, with pigs also important; sheep and goats played a minor role - fishing and hunting played an important role at some sites -each extended family household specialized in the production of crafts like pottery, leather goods or textiles to have goods to exchange for necessary imports--bitumin, obsidian, and metals. Large extended family households were internally stratified |
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Temple construction at Eridu, an Ubaid site
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Increasingly prominent role of the temple at larger Ubaid sites
Houses of the elite clustered around the temple Houses of farmers further away total population of Eridu by 4,000 B.C. around 5,000 people |
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The Uruk city-state
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-settled around 4200 B.C., but major changes around 3700 B.C.
-Growth of the walled settlement's population shortly after to about 10,000 as two formerly separate communities coalesced -Major cultural developments represented at Uruk foremost of which was the emergence of monumental architecture centered around the temple |
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The emergence and development of Sumerian writing
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-Clay tablet with early pictographic writing, ca. 3200 B.C.
-Cuneiform writing, ca. 2500 B.C. -function primarily economic, providing accounts or receipts for goods received, exported, produced, or consumed -clay tokens for currency (?) |
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Inanna, goddess of the Limestone Temple
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-Female deity associated with fertility and sexuality
-Deities like Inanna to whom temples were dedicated were regarded as patrons of the community |
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Role of temple in the Sumerian economy
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-Ability to harness communal labor for the construction and maintenance of irrigation canals was key to the success of Uruk and other early Sumerian cities
-Temples organized this labor and functioned as storerooms for agricultural surpluses -As administrative centers, temples figured in the redistribution of other goods to hundreds of laborers and craftsmen |
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Uruk Cylinder Seal
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-Long tradition of cylinder seals, used to secure items and display ownership by rolling the cylinder over wet clay seal.
-would roll out narrative scenes |
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The Royal Cemetery at Ur
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-tombs constructed for deceased elites
-thought to be the city-state's kings and queens because of the considerable amount of wealth found in the tombs |
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Royal cemetery at Ur
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-1500 burials, only 16 belonging to royalty
-dozens of retainers, including armed guards, musicians, even chariots accompanied the royal deceased |
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Egypt
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-Like Mesopotamian civilization, ancient Egyptian civilization is a riverine civilization, closely linked to the agricultural potential of the Nile
-Although the Nile is one of the longest rivers in the world, the Nile Valley is extremely dry with desert conditions on either side of the river |
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The Nile (Hapi--Egyptian god of the Nile)
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-Summer rains swelled the Nile and sent its salty waters over the riverbanks onto floodplain
-Gentle, predictable floodwaters inundated farmlands with water, providing moisture for crops when the waters receded. -Productive agriculture based on wheat, barley, flax, and date palms -Length of Nile facilitated communication and transportation of goods -The Nile defined ancient Egpyt as a territorial state. While the reverine communication aided its integration, the stark contrast between the Nile Valley and adjacent lands fostered cultural unity for its early inhabitants |
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Predynastic foundations
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5000-2929 B.C.
-Hunting and gathering cultures documented archaeologically from the Terminal Pleistocene when wetter climate prevailed -Difficult to document early sites because of the Nile flood pattern burying floodplain sites |
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Predynastic chronological sequence
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-Badarian (4300-4000 B.C.)
-Amratian (4000-3500 B.C.) -Gerzean (3500-3000 B.C.) |
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Elite predynastic tombs
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-Mural paintings from Hierakonopolis tomb
-predynastic tomb with multiple chambers, mid brick walls, and rich grave goods |
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Hierakonpolis
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-the religious and political capital of Upper Egypt at the end of the Predynastic period
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The Narmer Palette
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-is a significant Egyptian archeological find, dating from about the 31st century BC, containing some of the earliest hieroglyphic inscriptions ever found. It is thought by some to depict the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the king Narmer.
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The Archaic Period
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2920 BC to 2680 BC
Early Dynastic Egypt |
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Early Dynastic Royal tombs at Abydos
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-Burial place of the first two dynasties (3100-2680)
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Elaboration of the funerary cult: The mastaba tombs of royal officials
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-relatively wide distribution of mastabas suggests that royal control was not as authoritarian this early period as it was to become
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The Old kingdom
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2680 to 2134 BC (3rd to 6th Dynasties)
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Construction of the royal necropolis at Giza
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-begins with Khufu (Cheops) around 2500 BC
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Shpinx
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-carved out of rock by commission of King Khafre
-depicts a lion with Khafre's head keeping watch over the mortuary complex |
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Concept of divine kingship
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-during the old kingdom, the king was considered to be the embodiment of the god Horus on earth. Horus the falcon was the son of the dead Osiris, god of the underworld
- King alone had direct access to the afterlife. His subjects gained access through service to the king -The king on his part had a responsibility to the living community to maintain "ma'at", which referred to the concept of divine order and justice which was perpetually threatened by the forces of chaos |
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Workers on the Egyptian pyramids
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-probably taken from the temple workers, and not village workers
-barracks suggest workers were cared after (cow remains suggests high quality slaughters) |
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Second Intermediate Period
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1640 to 1550 BC
-- by 17th century BC, Egypt had come under the control of a line of Hyksos kings--Hyksos refers to a group of asiatics--some were cooks, seamstresses, winemakers, and nomadic herders -They took control of lower Egypt ruling from the town of Avaris. Took on titles and traditions of other Egyptian pharaohs and is thought that they were probably intermarried with royal families of Thebes and elsewhere -This period was a turning point in Egyptian history. The Hyksos had new ideas and introduces more sophisticated technology--bronze making a started silver trade, stronger bows, new forms of swords and daggers, and see the horse drawn chariot |
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Indus Valley
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(Mojenho-daro and Harrappa)
-Settlement of Indus floodplain required developmental control mechanisms -clues to the kind of society that organized such flood control efforts from archaeology and architecture |
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Mehgrah
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(Indus Valley)
It is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Asia. |
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Dental drilling in Mehgrah
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early evidence of drilling from burials
--tooth wear marks on the drill marks showed that the people lived on after the drilling |
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Mature Harappan Civilzation
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(2500 to 2050 B.C.)
-The great towns and cities of the Indus Valley civilization housed as many as 35,000-50,000 people in the tightly aggregated settlements |
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Mojenho-daro
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-The largest Harrapan site at 296 acres
-twice as large as Harrapa which was 173 acres -population estimates range form 35,000 to 40,000 people -see citadel on west of the site with fortification, public buildings, bath as well as a complex network of at least partially planned streets -water features-->drain, private house baths, private well |
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Role of trade and commerce
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-cubical weights in graduated sizes
-these weights conform to the standard Harappan weight system that was used in all of the settlements -these weights were found in recent excavations at Harappa and may have been used for controlling trade and possibly collecting taxes |
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Harappa craft specialist sections
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-Sections of cities blocked off for craft specialists
-potters, flint workers, metal workers, brick makers, etc |
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The un-deciphered Hrappan script
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Harappan seals have been found in Mesopotamian sites, as have Mesopotamian cylinder seals in Indus River sites
although the combination of animal forms with pictographs suggests an economic focus, images of deities are found as well |
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Why we know so little about Harappan leaders
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-because their script is still undeciphered
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Collapse of Harappan civilization
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2000 BC
-Harappan civilization reaches its peak at 2300 BC -By 2000 BC Harappa and Mojenho-daro were in decline and eventually abandoned -possibly a major river shifted, forcing population to move elsewhere -shift in major trade routes -deforestation and soil erosion -flooding of the Indus River |
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Recognizing a complex society
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-food and labor surplus controlled by an elite
-labor specialization -social stratification -a formal government -monumental public works -densely populated settlements -a system of record keeping |
