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80 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is grounded theory?
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an open and reflexive method through which researchers follow systematic and analytic procedures (analyze transcripts, observations, and written documents) with the goal being to conceptualize and explain, developing a theory as we go.
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an open and reflexive method through which researchers follow systematic and analytic procedures (analyze transcripts, observations, and written documents) with the goal being to conceptualize and explain, developing a theory as we go.
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grounded theory
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What is the goal of grounded theory?
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to CONCEPTUALIZE AND EXPLAIN, developing a theory as we go
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examples include how a particular advertising campaign in your country is created, or how internal change is effectively communicated over time in your university, or how trends in social media might align with positive or negative impacts on a company's reputation.
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grounded theory studies
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What are the five aspects to the process of conducting grounded theory research?
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(1.) remain OPEN-MINDED and make no assumptions, (2.) DATA COLLECTION, (3.) MEMOING, (4.) THEORETICAL SAMPLING, (5.) CODING AND ANALYZING
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What are the three steps in the coding process of grounded theory?
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(1.) open coding, (2.) axial coding, (3.) selective coding
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What is substantive theory?
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Substantive theory emerges from a study of a concrete social situation such media relations, customer relationship management, corporate social responsibility, professional practice, gender relations, leadership communications, or social media communication. It can also emerge from a study of one particular context such a marketing department or an advertising agency or a community event. Because substantive theory represents a close connection to empirical reality, it is very useful for researchers in the professional or business area. Substantive theory has specificity: it applies to the setting or situation studied and hence is limited.
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_____ emerges from a study of a concrete social situation such media relations, customer relationship management, corporate social responsibility, professional practice, gender relations, leadership communications, or social media communication. It can also emerge from a study of one particular context such a marketing department or an advertising agency or a community event. Because substantive theory represents a close connection to empirical reality, it is very useful for researchers in the professional or business area. Substantive theory has specificity: it applies to the setting or situation studied and hence is limited.
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substantive theory
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What is formal theory?
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Formal theory is developed from substantive theory. It is generated from many different situations and settings, is conceptual, and has higher generality. Because it holds true not just for the setting of the specific study but also for other settings and situations, it is said to have general applicability. Examples of formal theories are systems theory, organizational culture theory, and network theory.
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_____ is developed from substantive theory. It is generated from many different situations and settings, is conceptual, and has higher generality. Because it holds true not just for the setting of the specific study but also for other settings and situations, it is said to have general applicability. Examples of formal theories are systems theory, organizational culture theory, and network theory.
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formal theory
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_____ emerges from the study of a particular context. _____ is more abstract and has higher generalizability.
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substantive theory; formal theory
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What are the four major limitations to grounded theory research?
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(1.) it is very COMPLEX AND DIFFICULT, (2.) you may have good categories and interesting narratives, but ignore underlying processes by simply describing and NOT DEVELOPING A NEW THEORY, (3.) it is hard not to let YOUR OWN IDEAS AND BELIEFS enter the data, (4.) you must be SENSITIVE AND THEORETICALLY AWARE
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Both _____ and _____ data are used to generate grounded theory.
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primary; secondary
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True or false? Both primary and secondary data are used to generate grounded theory.
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true
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What is ethnography?
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Ethnography is research focused on how social realities are seen from the perspective of those who live and work in them. An ethnography MUST be longitudinal research, with the end result being analyzing a culture of subculture. An ethnography is a written description of a culture based on fieldwork; in public relations it is qualitative but could be both qualitative and quantitative in other fields. Ethnography originally started in anthropology studying non-western cultures (for example, isolated tribes). Examples of ethnographies include online consumers, an entire society, a profession like PR, or a specific organization. Today, focus is given to PR ethnographic research focusing on consumer relationships with brands, communication conventions of organizations, and working lives and practices of those in other countries. Other examples include looking at social transformations (political or health communication), youth culture, media messages, or examining gender, sexuality, ethnicity, and other critical perspectives.
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_____ is the study of the way of life (the culture) of a group, community, or organization. It relies on extended periods of fieldwork.
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ethnography
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What is descriptive ethnography?
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Descriptive ethnography (or conventional ethnography) focuses on the description of cultures or groups and aims to uncover patterns and typologies. It is used in most ethnographic studies.
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_____ focuses on the description of cultures or groups and aims to uncover patterns and typologies. It is used in most ethnographic studies.
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descriptive ethnography
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What is critical ethnography?
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Critical ethnography has its basis in critical theory and has a political focus as it is concerned with power and hidden agendas in society or organizations. Although it also centers on description, its ultimate aim is to generate change in the setting it investigates or transformation in the reader or researcher.
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_____ has a political focus as it is concerned with power and hidden agendas in society or organizations. Although it also centers on description, its ultimate aim is to generate change in the setting it investigates or transformation in the reader or researcher.
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critical ethnography
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What is autoethnography?
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Autoethnography implies that you center your studies on your own self and behavior, your thoughts and feelings, rather than focusing exclusively on others. The aim of autoethnographic research is to carry out a cultural analysis that is rooted in personal experience.
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_____ implies that you center your studies on your own self and behavior, your thoughts and feelings, rather than focusing exclusively on others. The aim is to carry out a cultural analysis that is rooted in personal experience.
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autoethnography
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Within ethnography, _____ is an insider's account, whereas _____ involves interpretations and scientific accounts by the researcher.
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emic; etic
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What is the emic view?
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the insider’s account of their own world, which helps you gain an understanding of their perspective. You come to this with an open mind to avoid preconceptions. Informants are allowed to speak for themselves as they are “experts” on their own thoughts and feelings.
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Within ethnography, the _____ is the insider's account of their own world, which helps you gain an understanding of their perspective.
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emic view
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What are etic meanings?
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Etic meanings are interpretations and scientific accounts by the researcher based on what is directly observable.
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Within ethnography, _____ are interpretations and scientific accounts by the researcher based on what is directly observable.
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etic meanings
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Within ethnography, theory emerges from a combination of _____ ("insider") and _____ ("outsider") perspectives.
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emic; etic
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What are the four steps of the process of conducting ethnographic research?
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(1.) select the sample, (2.) collecting the data, (3.) ethnographic record, (4.) write the report
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What are the four steps of the process of conducting ethnographic research?
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(1.) select the sample, (2.) collecting the data, (3.) ethnographic record, (4.) write the report
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What are the four major limitations of ethnography?
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(1.) it is a huge TIME COMMITMENT because of the participant observation, (2.) you may never be able to FULLY FIT IN, (3.) you CANNOT GENERALIZE the results, (4.) may be TOO DESCRIPTIVE or present raw data (for example, stories) without analyzing or interpreting the data
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What are the four major limitations of ethnography?
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(1.) it is a huge TIME COMMITMENT because of the participant observation, (2.) you may never be able to FULLY FIT IN, (3.) you CANNOT GENERALIZE the results, (4.) may be TOO DESCRIPTIVE or present raw data (for example, stories) without analyzing or interpreting the data
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What is discourse analysis?
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Discourse analysis is concerned with the communication processes through which meaning is created and expressed. Discourse analysis is a set of broad methodological principles that are applied to forms of talk and texts, including spoken, written, visual, symbolic, and non-verbal language. Discourse analysis is mainly concerned with text and talk in interactions between people and people and organizations. Discourse analysis is also looking at the strategy which people try to create a particular effect.
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_____ is concerned with the communication processes through which meaning is created and expressed. It is a set of broad methodological principles that are applied to forms of talk and texts, including spoken, written, visual, symbolic, and non-verbal language. It is mainly concerned with text and talk in interactions between people and people and organizations. It is also looking at the strategy which people try to create a particular effect.
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discourse analysis
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Discourse analysis was developed in the _____ and has its roots in _____, _____, _____, and _____.
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1970s; linguistics; psychology; cultural studies; sociology
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True or false? Discourse analysis was developed in the 1970s and has its roots in linguistics, psychology, cultural studies, and sociology.
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true
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What is critical discourse analysis?
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Critical discourse analysis is focused on power and ideology and looks at how discursive practices can help produce and reproduce unequal power relations between social classes, women and men, and ethnic/cultural majorities and minorities through ways in which they represent things and people. In other words, critical discourse analysis looks at how power and inequality are socially constructed and maintained.
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_____ is focused on power and ideology and looks at how discursive practices can help produce and reproduce unequal power relations between social classes, women and men, and ethnic/cultural majorities and minorities through ways in which they represent things and people. In other words, it looks at how power and inequality are socially constructed and maintained.
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critical discourse analysis
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What are the four steps involved in analyzing the data in discourse analysis?
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(1.) READ AND RE-READ the transcripts or explore other sources of discourse, (2.) focus on and label EXTENDED SEGMENTS of language, (3.) CONTEXTUALIZE the texts, (4.) be SENSITIVE to the ways in which discourses are constructed
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Validity for discourse analysis is based on what three elements?
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(1.) convergence, (2.) agreement, (3.) coverage
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Validity for discourse analysis is based on what three elements?
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(1.) convergence, (2.) agreement, (3.) coverage
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True or false? Validity is an important quality criterion in discourse analysis.
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true
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What are six limitations of discourse analysis?
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(1.) tendency to consider the CHOSEN SAMPLE OF DISCOURSE IS SUFFICIENT, (2.) "NON-REALIST" STANCE overlooks pre-existing material and social objects which act independently of language, (3.) concentrates too much on TEXTS WHICH THE ANALYST FINDS OBJECTIONABLE, (4.) considerable EXPERTISE IS NEEDED to conduct interviews for discourse analysis, (5.) discourse analysis is often DIFFICULT AND TIME-CONSUMING, (6.) work is likely to be IDEOLOGICALLY BIASED
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What are six limitations of discourse analysis?
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(1.) tendency to consider the CHOSEN SAMPLE OF DISCOURSE IS SUFFICIENT, (2.) "NON-REALIST" STANCE overlooks pre-existing material and social objects which act independently of language, (3.) concentrates too much on TEXTS WHICH THE ANALYST FINDS OBJECTIONABLE, (4.) considerable EXPERTISE IS NEEDED to conduct interviews for discourse analysis, (5.) discourse analysis is often DIFFICULT AND TIME-CONSUMING, (6.) work is likely to be IDEOLOGICALLY BIASED
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What is phenomenology?
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Phenomenology is the study of phenomena or the lived experiences of individuals. Phenomenology is both a philosophy and a method of research. In phenomenology, we are interested in how participants make sense of the world around them and are describing the “essential structures” of participants’ experiences and what they mean to them. Within phenomenology, you want to see things through the eyes of the participants, taking out all of your own preconceived ideas about an event or experience.
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_____ is the study of the lived experiences of individuals. It is both a philosophy and a method of research. We are interested in how participants make sense of the world around them and are describing the “essential structures” of participants’ experiences and what they mean to them. You want to see things through the eyes of the participants, taking out all of your own preconceived ideas about an event or experience.
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phenomenology
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interested in how participants make sense of the world around them; it describes the “essential structures” of experience and what these mean for participants.
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phenomenology
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Studies utilizing the phenomenological approach in public relations have mainly been limited to investigations of _____ and how their life experiences have influenced their understanding and experiences of _____ and _____.
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consumers; brands; advertisements
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True or false? Phenomenology has the potential to be a valuable research tool for investigating a wide range of topics such as how different stakeholders perceive the communication activities of organizations, how the cultural expectations of publics shape the images they hold of companies, how clients understand and experience the consultancy-client relationship, how male executives respond to female leaders, how employees experience particular episodes of internal communication activity, and so on.
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true
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What is lifeworld in phenomenology?
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At the center of phenomenology is a concept called lifeworld which acknowledges that each person’s reality is different but that we also have common experiences and shared perspectives.
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At the center of phenomenology is a concept called _____ which acknowledges that each person’s reality is different BUT that we also have common experiences and shared perspectives.
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lifeworld
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each person’s subjective experience of their everyday life, that is, it is their social reality, and this determines the meanings they attribute to their actions and the actions of others.
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lifeworld
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the recognition that the reality of each individual is different and individual actions can only be understood through understanding this of individuals and also their shared perspectives
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lifeworld
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What are the five steps in the process of conducting phenomenological research?
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(1.) articulating the PHILOSOPHICAL BASIS of the study, (2.) BRACKETING ASSUMPTIONS, (3.) define the MAIN PHENOMENON you want to investigate, (4.) work with SMALL SAMPLES AND CONDUCT LONG INTERVIEWS, (5.) apply THEMATIC DATA ANALYSIS
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What are the five steps in the process of conducting phenomenological research?
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(1.) articulating the PHILOSOPHICAL BASIS of the study, (2.) BRACKETING ASSUMPTIONS, (3.) define the MAIN PHENOMENON you want to investigate, (4.) work with SMALL SAMPLES AND CONDUCT LONG INTERVIEWS, (5.) apply THEMATIC DATA ANALYSIS
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What are the seven steps of thematic analysis? (long version)
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(1.) read through interviews and narratives over until you are familiar with them and they give a SENSE OF THE WHOLE, (2.) go back to narratives and look specifically for SIGNIFICANT STATEMENTS, (3.) FORMULATE MEANINGS, when you take each statement and try to make sense of it in the participant's own terms/original context, (4.) repeat process for each interview and organize meanings into CLUSTERS OF THEMES, (5.) EXHAUSTIVE DESCRIPTION in which you provide a detailed description of participants feelings and perspectives and integrate all the clusters of themes into one account that articulates participants' views of the phenomenon, (6.) formulate a DESCRIPTION OF THE WHOLE PHENOMENON and identify its fundamental structure or essence, (7.) MEMBER CHECK and ask participants if your description validates their original experiences
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What are the seven steps of thematic analysis? (long version)
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(1.) read through interviews and narratives over until you are familiar with them and they give a SENSE OF THE WHOLE, (2.) go back to narratives and look specifically for SIGNIFICANT STATEMENTS, (3.) FORMULATE MEANINGS, when you take each statement and try to make sense of it in the participant's own terms/original context, (4.) repeat process for each interview and organize meanings into CLUSTERS OF THEMES, (5.) EXHAUSTIVE DESCRIPTION in which you provide a detailed description of participants feelings and perspectives and integrate all the clusters of themes into one account that articulates participants' views of the phenomenon, (6.) formulate a DESCRIPTION OF THE WHOLE PHENOMENON and identify its fundamental structure or essence, (7.) MEMBER CHECK and ask participants if your description validates their original experiences
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What are the seven steps of thematic analysis? (short version)
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(1.) sense of the whole, (2.) significant statements, (3.) formulate meanings, (4.) clusters of themes, (5.) exhaustive description, (6.) description of the whole phenomenon, (7.) member check
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What are the seven steps of thematic analysis? (short version)
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(1.) sense of the whole, (2.) significant statements, (3.) formulate meanings, (4.) clusters of themes, (5.) exhaustive description, (6.) description of the whole phenomenon, (7.) member check
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What is member checking?
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Member checking involves giving participants a summary of each interview with the themes that you have found highlighted. As they read, you want them to answer 1 question: does your description validate their original experiences?
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_____ involves giving participants a summary of each interview with the themes that you have found highlighted. As they read, you want them to answer 1 question: does your description validate their original experiences?
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member checking
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What are the two major limitations of phenomenological research?
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(1.) it is very difficult to TAKE YOUR OWN BIASES OUT and describe experiences/bracket them without letting your own values, beliefs, and preconceptions influence the findings, (2.) it is difficult to FIND PEOPLE who have experienced the phenomena and/or who are willing to spend time in extended discussions about it
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What are the two major limitations of phenomenological research?
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(1.) it is very difficult to TAKE YOUR OWN BIASES OUT and describe experiences/bracket them without letting your own values, beliefs, and preconceptions influence the findings, (2.) it is difficult to FIND PEOPLE who have experienced the phenomena and/or who are willing to spend time in extended discussions about it
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What is the first strand of historical research?
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The first strand of historical research involves reconstructing the role of communication and the lives of people in other times and contexts. The first strand of historical research is focused on communication activities, issues, causes, and the people involved (i.e., communication, organizations, and stakeholders). For example, conducting a public relations or marketing communications history. Examples of the first strand of historical research include postwar PR, North American magazine ads, and World War II poster campaigns.
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The _____ involves reconstructing the role of communication and the lives of people in other times and contexts. It is focused on communication activities, issues, causes, and the people involved (i.e., communication, organizations, and stakeholders). For example, conducting a public relations or marketing communications history. Examples include postwar PR, North American magazine ads, and World War II poster campaigns.
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first strand of historical research
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What is the second strand of historical research?
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The second strand of historical research involves producing a history of thought or ideas, so you are tracing and interpreting ideas, concepts, theories, or schools of thought about phenomena. Within the second strand of historical research, you can look at national, regional, governmental, institutional, organizational, and professional contexts in which PR histories can be researched. Through the second strand of historical research you can also look at broad political, economic, social, or international contexts, or a specific influential individual (i.e., an activist). Examples of the second strand of historical research include A History of Schools of Marketing Thought, or A PR History of Activism and Anti-slavery.
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The _____ involves producing a history of thought or ideas, so you are tracing and interpreting ideas, concepts, theories, or schools of thought about phenomena. Within this, you can look at national, regional, governmental, institutional, organizational, and professional contexts in which PR histories can be researched. Through this you can also look at broad political, economic, social, or international contexts, or a specific influential individual (i.e., an activist). Examples include A History of Schools of Marketing Thought, or A PR History of Activism and Anti-slavery.
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second strand of historical research
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What four things should you demonstrate with each source when collecting data within historical research?
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(1.) RELEVANCE/provenance, (2.) MOTIVES of the author, (3.) CIRCUMSTANCES in which the source was created, (4.) the ways in which they RELATE to other documents
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What four things should you demonstrate with each source when collecting data within historical research?
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(1.) RELEVANCE/provenance, (2.) MOTIVES of the author, (3.) CIRCUMSTANCES in which the source was created, (4.) the ways in which they RELATE to other documents
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When analyzing and writing historical research, again you are going to _____ and _____ your evidence, looking for broad themes that link your ideas.
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code; categorize
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When writing historical research, you should use very _____ writing and thoroughly _____ your research.
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descriptive; explain
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In historical research, having interpreted and synthesized the data, your task then is to create a _____, or story of the past, that may be linear following a timeline, topical or thematic, geographical or sociological, structured around topics such as class or gender, politics or economics, and driven by more critical concerns of power, exploitation and class conflict.
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narrative
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What is action research?
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In action research, you work reflexively over time with members of an organization, work group, or community to address an issue or problematic situation which is of “genuine concern.” The goal of action research is to study and stimulate change. In PR, through action research we can explore the dynamics of communication between an organization or community and its stakeholders or publics. Within action research you may want to improve the communication in an organization, make a contribution to marketing or communication knowledge, or empower oppressed stakeholders or publics (critical theory). In action research you are using collaboration (working with others) and a cycle enquiry process (constantly gathering data and reflecting on what you have found).
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In _____, you work reflexively over time with members of an organization, work group, or community to address an issue or problematic situation which is of “genuine concern.” The goal is to study and stimulate change. In PR, through this we can explore the dynamics of communication between an organization or community and its stakeholders or publics. Within this you may want to improve the communication in an organization, make a contribution to marketing or communication knowledge, or empower oppressed stakeholders or publics (critical theory). You are using collaboration (working with others) and a cycle enquiry process (constantly gathering data and reflecting on what you have found).
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action research
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What is your role as the researcher in action research?
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As the researcher in action research, you are examining change while working as a consultant or facilitator.
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As the researcher in action research, you are examining change while working as a _____ or _____.
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consultant; facilitator
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_____ is an umbrella term for a number of different participatory approaches which involve the researcher as both _____ and facilitator of _____.
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action research; scholar; change
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What are the five steps involved in the iterative cycle of conducting action research?
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(1.) groundwork, (2.) intervention, (3.) evaluation, (4.) continuing the cycle
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What are the five steps involved in the iterative cycle of conducting action research?
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(1.) groundwork, (2.) intervention, (3.) evaluation, (4.) continuing the cycle
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What are the five steps involved in the iterative cycle of conducting action research?
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(1.) groundwork, (2.) intervention, (3.) evaluation, (4.) continuing the cycle
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