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384 Cards in this Set

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an open and reflexive method through which researchers follow systematic and analytic procedures (analyze transcripts, observations, and written documents) with the goal being to conceptualize and explain, developing a theory as we go.
grounded theory
_____ is an open and reflexive method through which researchers follow systematic and analytic procedures (analyze transcripts, observations, and written documents) with the goal being to conceptualize and explain, developing a theory as we go.
grounded theory
grounded theory uses _____ -- collecting, analyzing, and developing theory at the same time using constant comparisons.
theoretical sampling
grounded theory started in the _____ and is still used today in _____.
1960s; PR
_____ is a research approach in which the researcher develops a theory that is grounded in the data.
grounded theory
_____ is both a set of research procedures and the theory that develops from that research.
grounded theory
an open, reflexive form of research where data collection, analysis, and the development of theoretical concepts and the literature review occur in a cyclical and interactive process.
grounded theory
Grounded theory has what three distinguishing features?
(1.) researchers follow SYSTEMATIC, ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES, (2.) researchers do not aim merely to describe but also to CONCEPTUALIZE AND EXPLAIN; (3.) researchers carry out THEORETICAL SAMPLING
Grounded theory has what three distinguishing features?
(1.) researchers follow SYSTEMATIC, ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES, (2.) researchers do not aim merely to describe but also to CONCEPTUALIZE AND EXPLAIN; (3.) researchers carry out THEORETICAL SAMPLING
_____ is where decisions about the data to be collected are determined by the concepts they cover, both in the early stages and then later as the theory is in the process of being constructed.
theoretical sampling
In grounded theory, data are collected, analyzed, and theory is developed in parallel and interactively through a process of _____.
constant comparison
_____ studies are based on the premise that strategies and products of research are shaped from the data rather than from any preconceived theoretical frameworks and hypotheses that you might bring to the research.
grounded theory
A grounded theory approach enables you to undertake _____ research, that is, research that develops in context and over time.
processual
a _____ approach allows you to examine how participants create meaning through social interactions in specific contexts.
grounded theory
useful in situations where little is known about a particular topic or phenomenon, or where a new approach is needed to garner novel insights in familiar settings.
grounded theory
although it can be applied to any area of study, it is especially suitable when the purpose of research is to discover the processes, constructs, and theories used by those who produce and consume communication
grounded theory
What is the goal of grounded theory?
to CONCEPTUALIZE AND EXPLAIN, developing a theory as we go
The goal of grounded theory is to _____ and _____, developing a theory as we go.
conceptualize; explain
_____ studies have the potential to offer insights into how phenomena occur.
grounded theory
have the potential to offer original insights into how phenomena occur, such as how a particular advertising campaign in your country is created, or how internal change is effectively communicated over time in your university, or how trends in social media might align with positive or negative impacts on a company's reputation.
grounded theory studies
as a researcher employing this approach you will need to be sensitive to the context of your research, as this will enable you to notice and uncover important, emerging concepts
grounded theory
What are the five aspects to the process of conducting grounded theory research?
(1.) remain OPEN-MINDED and make no assumptions, (2.) DATA COLLECTION, (3.) MEMOING, (4.) THEORETICAL SAMPLING, (5.) CODING AND ANALYZING
What are the five aspects to the process of conducting grounded theory research?
(1.) remain OPEN-MINDED and make no assumptions, (2.) DATA COLLECTION, (3.) MEMOING, (4.) THEORETICAL SAMPLING, (5.) CODING AND ANALYZING
What are the five aspects to the process of conducting grounded theory research?
(1.) remain OPEN-MINDED and make no assumptions, (2.) DATA COLLECTION, (3.) MEMOING, (4.) THEORETICAL SAMPLING, (5.) CODING AND ANALYZING
process of conducting grounded theory; involves observations in the field, transcripts from interviews, and other documents/reports
data collection
process of conducting grounded theory; involves constantly writing memos to yourself about your observations and interviews
memoing
process of conducting grounded theory; when you make initial decisions about sampling that you may add to or change completely as you progress
theoretical sampling
process of conducting grounded theory; when concepts or themes are identified and named during analysis
coding and analyzing
True or false? In a grounded theory approach, you start with an area of interest and go straight into collecting the data.
true
by choosing to follow a _____ approach, you opt to operate as an interpreter of the data, not just a reporter or a describer of a situation
grounded theory
in _____, you continually search for relationships between concepts in order to generate patterns and links, from which you go to develop theories or, at least, theoretical ideas.
grounded theory
In _____, usually you start without a hypothesis or theory, your work developing both inductively and deductively. This is because during the course of analysis provisional hypotheses -- or early hunches -- or prepositions arise (they are sometimes called “working hypotheses”), which you check out against further incoming data.
grounded theory
In grounded theory, during your process of investigation you develop "_____," gaining insight into and awareness of relevant and significant ideas while collecting and analyzing the data.
theoretical sensitivity
_____ develops through the constant comparison of data and ideas in an orderly and systematic way.
grounded theory
distinctive features of _____ include working hypotheses, theoretical sampling, memoing, theoretical sensitivity, and constant comparison.
grounded theory
Distinctive features of grounded theory include which five things?
(1.) working hypotheses, (2.) theoretical sampling, (3.) memoing, (4.) theoretical sensitivity, (5.) constant comparison
traditionally, data collection in grounded theory is based on _____.
observed events
In _____, it is usual to collect your data from observations in the field (including participant observation), diaries and other documents such as letters or even newspaper reports. It is common practice to include interviews, even though these are based on participants’ accounts of events rather than your own observations and experiences.
grounded theory (data collection in grounded theory)
In _____, from the moment you commence your research, your data collection and data analysis go hand in hand. Analysis starts as soon as you take the first few steps in data collection. The gathering of your data does not finish until the end of the research process because ideas, concepts, and new questions continually arise which guide you to new data sources. In this way, the collection of your data becomes more focused and specific as the research process proceeds
grounded theory (data collection in grounded theory)
In grounded theory, from the beginning of data collection, you should be writing _____ to yourself about your observations and interviews. It is also useful to comment on and explain the analytical codes and categories that you derive from analyzing the data.
memos (memoing in grounded theory)
In grounded theory, _____ help you trace patterns in the data and your emerging themes.
memos (memoing in grounded theory)
In grounded theory, _____ is used. This is guided by ideas which have significance for the emerging theory. One of the main differences between this and other types of sampling is time and continuance. Unlike other types of sampling which are planned beforehand and where a sampling frame exists from the very beginning of a study, this continues throughout the process of your research.
theoretical sampling (theoretical sampling in grounded theory)
At the start of the project, you make sampling decisions for the initial stage only. Once the research has started and you have analyzed the initial data, you will discover new concepts. These inform your choices about the events and people you next select in order to gain further illumination on the research topic.
theoretical sampling (theoretical sampling in grounded theory)
In grounded theory, _____ continues until the point of saturation, when no new information of relevance to your study is found in the data. It occurs only when you are convinced that your theory is able to fully explain variations in the data. Saturation is achieved at a different stage in each research project and cannot be predicted.
theoretical sampling (theoretical sampling in grounded theory)
In grounded theory, _____ is nascent theory; once you have begun to _____ the data, you have begun to develop the theory. From the first interview and observation to the last, you should be continuously analyzing the data.
coding; code (coding and analyzing in grounded theory)
In grounded theory, _____ allows you to transform your data and reduce them in order to build categories; as major categories emerge, your theory evolves.
coding (coding and analyzing in grounded theory)
_____ in grounded theory is the process by which concepts or themes are identified and named during the analysis.
coding (coding and analyzing in grounded theory)
Throughout your study, you need to be comparing each section of the data with every other section as you search for similarities, differences, and connections. Code and categorize all the primary and secondary data. This will lead you to form key concepts and constructs. Your aim is to search for major themes which link ideas to find a storyline for the study. This whole process is called _____.
constant comparison
_____ is the process by which throughout your study you need to be comparing each section of the data with every other section as you search for similarities, differences, and connections. Code and categorize all the primary and secondary data. This will lead you to form key concepts and constructs. Your aim is to search for major themes which link ideas to find a storyline for the study
constant comparison
What are the three steps in the coding process of grounded theory?
(1.) open coding, (2.) axial coding, (3.) selective coding
What are the three steps in the coding process of grounded theory?
(1.) open coding, (2.) axial coding, (3.) selective coding
coding in grounded theory; involves dissecting the data into discrete fragments.
open coding
_____ is the process of breaking down and conceptualizing the data. It starts as soon as you receive the data and examine them. Each separate idea in the data is given a label. Similar ideas are named with the same label.
open coding
the process of breaking down and conceptualizing the data. It starts as soon as you receive the data and examine them. Each separate idea in the data is given a label. Similar ideas are named with the same label.
open coding
coding in grounded theory; involves making links between codes and grouping conceptually similar data to form categories
axial coding
_____ is where you reassemble the data that you previously broke down when you carried out open coding. By reviewing and re-sorting your common themes, you group categories together in a new form in order to build major categories, which you then label.
axial coding
where you reassemble the data that you previously broke down when you carried out open coding. By reviewing and re-sorting your common themes, you group categories together in a new form in order to build major categories, which you then label.
axial coding
coding in grounded theory; it involves selecting a core category and relating it to other categories
selective coding
_____ involves coding for the main phenomenon, the core category. In grounded theory, the major category links all others and is called the core category or core variable. Like a thread, the category weaves through the others, integrating them and providing the storyline. The relating of all categories to a core is called this.
selective coding
involves coding for the main phenomenon, the core category. In grounded theory, the major category links all others and is called the core category or core variable. Like a thread, the category weaves through the others, integrating them and providing the storyline. The relating of all categories to a core is called this.
selective coding
the relating of all categories to a core is called _____, meaning you uncover the essence of the study and integrate all the elements of the emergent theory.
selective coding
_____ emerges from the study of a social situation (i.e. gender relations, social media communication, etc.)
substantive theory
emerges from the study of a social situation (i.e. gender relations, social media communication, etc.)
substantive theory
emerges from a study of a concrete social situation such media relations, customer relationship management, corporate social responsibility, professional practice, gender relations, leadership communications, or social media communication. It can also emerge from a study of one particular context such a marketing department or an advertising agency or a community event.
substantive theory
Because _____ represents a close connection to empirical reality, it is very useful for researchers in the professional or business area.
substantive theory
_____ has specificity; it applies to the setting or situation studied and hence is limited.
substantive theory
_____ develops from substantive theory and from many different situations and settings. It is also more generalizable from substantive theory.
formal theory
_____ is developed from substantive theory.
formal theory
_____ is generated from many different situations and settings, is conceptual, and has higher generality. Because it holds true not just for the setting of the specific study but also for other settings and situations, it is said to have general applicability.
formal theory
It is generated from many different situations and settings, is conceptual, and has higher generality. Because it holds true not just for the setting of the specific study but also for other settings and situations, it is said to have general applicability.
formal theory
Examples of _____ are systems theory, organizational culture theory, and network theory.
formal theory
As an example, the idea that there are stages through which public relations executives proceed when they enter a particular new organization and become accustomed to its norms and practices is _____. This becomes _____ when it is linked to the existence of a “status passage,” which can be applied to many situations where people pass through stages.
substantive theory; formal theory
_____ emerges from the study of a particular context. _____ is more abstract and has higher generalizability.
substantive theory; formal theory
What are the four major limitations to grounded theory research?
(1.) it is very COMPLEX AND DIFFICULT, (2.) you may have good categories and interesting narratives, but ignore underlying processes by simply describing and NOT DEVELOPING A NEW THEORY, (3.) it is hard not to let YOUR OWN IDEAS AND BELIEFS enter the data, (4.) you must be SENSITIVE AND THEORETICALLY AWARE
What are the four major limitations to grounded theory research?
(1.) it is very COMPLEX AND DIFFICULT, (2.) you may have good categories and interesting narratives, but ignore underlying processes by simply describing and NOT DEVELOPING A NEW THEORY, (3.) it is hard not to let YOUR OWN IDEAS AND BELIEFS enter the data, (4.) you must be SENSITIVE AND THEORETICALLY AWARE
Both _____ and _____ data are used to generate grounded theory.
primary; secondary
True or false? Only primary data is used to generate grounded theory.
false (both primary and secondary data are used to generate grounded theory)
In grounded theory, _____ sources include company and industry documents (both text and visual) and the professional or academic literature
secondary
_____ is research focused on how social realities are seen from the perspective of those who live and work in them
ethnography
An ethnography must be _____ research, with the end result being analyzing a culture of subculture.
longitudinal
a written description of a culture based on fieldwork; in public relations it is _____ but could be both in other fields.
ethnography; qualitative
originally started in anthropology studying non-western cultures (for example, isolated tribes)
ethnography
Ethnography is different from other methods because of the emphasis on _____ -- the way of life of a community or group and its signs (language, behaviors, artifacts, rituals, etc.)
culture
Examples of _____ include online consumers, an entire society, a profession like PR, or a specific organization.
ethnographies
Today, focus is given to PR _____ research focusing on consumer relationships with brands, communication conventions of organizations, and working lives and practices of those in other countries.
ethnographic
Other examples include looking at social transformations (political or health communication), youth culture, media messages, or examining gender, sexuality, ethnicity, and other critical perspectives.
ethnography
As a research approach, _____ may be used on its own or combined with other orientations, although its key distinction is that it always requires researchers to be immersed for long period in the “field” or research setting in order to study a culture from the perspective of its members.
ethnography
_____ refers not only to the process of doing research but also to the end product, the written account of that research.
ethnography
_____ entails researchers immersing themselves in the natural setting and cultural life of a group, organization, or community for an extended period of fieldwork
ethnography
_____ aims to understand the cultural world of participants in the study, and the symbolic role of communications
ethnography
requires researchers to carry out longitudinal research with the aim of achieving an analytical description of a culture or subculture, such as an online brand community of consumers; a society or nation; a local, global, or transnational community; a profession such as journalism or public relations; an organization such as an established company or an informal, grassroots activist group
ethnography
examples include an online brand community of consumers; a society or nation; a local, global, or transnational community; a profession such as journalism or public relations; an organization such as an established company or an informal, grassroots activist group
ethnography
_____ relies upon researchers immersing themselves in a group or community for an extended period of fieldwork, using the knowledge that cultural members share with them to account for the observed processes and patterns of human activity
ethnography
_____ researchers study the lived experiences of participants in the study, seeking to see the world as they do.
ethnographic
Ethnography differs from other qualitative approaches by its emphasis on _____. This refers to the way of life of a community or group and its signs, such as language, behaviors (including communication activities), and artifacts (such as documents, architecture, and technologies), which are considered to be symbolic of the beliefs and norms held tacitly.
culture
the study of the way of life (the culture) of a group, community, or organization. It relies on extended periods of fieldwork
ethnography
focuses on the description of cultures or groups with the goal being to uncover patterns
descriptive ethnography (or conventional ethnography)
_____ or _____ ethnography focuses on the description of cultures or groups with the goal being to uncover patterns. It is used in most studies.
descriptive; conventional
_____ ethnography is used in most studies.
descriptive
_____ (or _____) focuses on the description of cultures or groups and aims to uncover patterns and typologies. It is used in most ethnographic studies.
descriptive ethnography; conventional ethnography
based on critical theory and has a political focus; examines power and hidden agendas in society and organizations
critical ethnography
the goal of _____ ethnography is to generate change
critical
_____ has a political focus as it is concerned with power and agendas in society or organizations.
critical ethnography
Although it also centers on description, its ultimate aim is to generate change in the setting it investigates or transformation in the reader or researcher.
critical ethnography
when you center your studies on your own self and behavior, your thoughts and feelings, rather than focusing solely on others.
autoethnography
_____ implies that you center your studies on your own self and behavior, your thoughts and feelings, rather than focusing exclusively on others.
autoethnography
The aim of _____ research is to carry out a cultural analysis that is rooted in personal experience.
autoethnography
The data sources for an _____ are your own diaries and journal entries, where you record your thoughts, emotions, observations, personal stories, and vignettes.
autoethnography
By reflecting on your personal experiences in order to make sense of them, you endeavor to use these as insights into a particular culture or discipline, such as the profession of your focal culture. Ideally, you are hoping that your research will spark conversations that will challenge readers to think differently about what may have been overlooked previously in culture, thus inducing personal, relational, or cultural change
autoethnography
An _____ approach is highly personalized. It differs from traditional ethnography as it foregrounds the researcher’s own subjectivity rather than backgrounding it. It seeks to use the researcher’s experiences to gain insights into a wider cultural setting.
autoethnographic
Within ethnography, _____ is an insider's account, whereas _____ involves interpretations and scientific accounts by the researcher.
emic; etic
Within ethnography, the _____ is the insider's account of their own world, which helps you gain an understanding of their perspective.
emic view
Within ethnography, you come to this with an open mind to avoid preconceptions. Informants are allowed to speak for themselves as they are "experts" on their own thoughts and feelings.
emic view
Within ethnography, _____ are interpretations and scientific accounts by the researcher based on what is directly observable.
etic meanings
Within ethnography, theory emerges from a combination of _____ ("insider") and _____ ("outsider") perspectives.
emic; etic
What are the four steps of the process of conducting ethnographic research?
(1.) select the sample, (2.) collecting the data, (3.) ethnographic record, (4.) write the report
What are the four steps of the process of conducting ethnographic research?
(1.) select the sample, (2.) collecting the data, (3.) ethnographic record, (4.) write the report
What are the four steps of the process of conducting ethnographic research?
(1.) select the sample, (2.) collecting the data, (3.) ethnographic record, (4.) write the report
process of conducting ethnographic research; you do this based on a set of criteria (for example, they belong to a culture, organizations, etc.)
select the sample
process of conducting ethnographic research; done primarily through participant observations and interviewing. Observe your informants and talk to them over a prolonged period of time. Observations become the basis for the interviews.
collecting the data
process of conducting ethnographic research; involves recording EVERYTHING in the field, including four types of fieldnotes (condensed account, expanded account, fieldwork journal, and analysis and interpretation notes)
ethnographic record
process of conducting ethnographic research; involves three types, the realist tale (self-reflexive and written in first person), the confessional tale (when you use very personal language to tell your story), and the impressionist tale (creative, artistic, and contextual)
write the report
ethnographic report that is self-reflexive and written in first person
realist tale
ethnographic report where you use very personal language to tell you story
confessional tale
ethnographic report that is creative, artistic, and contextual
impressionist tale
selecting the sample in ethnographic research; ethnographers generally use _____ sampling that is _____ based. This means applying certain criteria to choose a specific group and setting to be studied. The criteria must be justified in the study and made explicit. Having decided and accessed your group, next you need to choose a sample of _____, ensuring that they are suitably representative of the group and therefore able to provide you with specific, detailed information about the setting and the people within it. Time and context also need to be considered in relation to sampling.
purposive; criterion; key informants
collecting the data in ethnographic research; your physical presence in the field is essential in ethnography, with participant observation and interviewing enabling you to gain “_____” of the group, organization, or online community you are studying. You observe your informants and talk to them over prolonged periods of time. As well as observing people in order to collect data, examining written texts is also appropriate for ethnographic investigation. Your observations become the basis for in-depth interviews, which you carry out both during and after the first stage of observation.
firsthand experience
ethnographic record in ethnographic research; From the beginning of your research, you need to record what goes on “_____.” This includes making notes of early impressions as well as detailed descriptions of events and behavior. As a qualitative researcher, you work reflexively, examining your own presence within the research project.
in the field
There are four types of fieldnotes in ethnography, all of which should be written as you go along: (1.) the _____ (summary descriptions made in the field), (2.) the _____ (detail filled in and the short notes extended), (3.) the _____, and (4.) _____.
condensed account; expanded account; fieldwork journal; analysis and interpretation notes
type of ethnography that is more personalized in which you would be expected to be self-reflexive and write in the first person
realist tale
type of ethnography that uses very personal language to describe in detail the techniques and strategies that you carried out in the field, and your confessions would show awareness of your own stance or biases
confessional tales
type of ethnography that is creative, artistic, and contextual, the aim being to present the culture in a creative and imaginative way and likely give yourself a place in the story
impressionist tales
What are the four major limitations of ethnography?
(1.) it is a huge TIME COMMITMENT because of the participant observation, (2.) you may never be able to FULLY FIT IN, (3.) you CANNOT GENERALIZE the results, (4.) may be TOO DESCRIPTIVE or present raw data (for example, stories) without analyzing or interpreting the data
What are the four major limitations of ethnography?
(1.) it is a huge TIME COMMITMENT because of the participant observation, (2.) you may never be able to FULLY FIT IN, (3.) you CANNOT GENERALIZE the results, (4.) may be TOO DESCRIPTIVE or present raw data (for example, stories) without analyzing or interpreting the data
What are the four major limitations of ethnography?
(1.) it is a huge TIME COMMITMENT because of the participant observation, (2.) you may never be able to FULLY FIT IN, (3.) you CANNOT GENERALIZE the results, (4.) may be TOO DESCRIPTIVE or present raw data (for example, stories) without analyzing or interpreting the data
_____ is concerned with the communication processes through which meaning is created and expressed.
discourse analysis
a set of broad methodological principles that are applied to forms of talk and texts, including spoken, written, visual, symbolic, and non-verbal language
discourse analysis
_____ is mainly concerned with text and talk in interactions between people and people and organizations
discourse analysis
_____ is also looking at the strategy which people try to create a particular effect.
discourse analysis
a cross-disciplinary research approach which focuses on the analysis of talk and text
discourse analysis
Within discourse analysis, the notion of "_____" embraces written, spoken, and non-verbal language, as well as other forms of presentation sourced in interviews, documents, and visual images such as films, photos, and advertisements.
text
interested in the communication processes through which meanings are created and expressed, and how these shape our sense of social reality.
discourse analysis
_____ is interested in the communication processes through which meanings are created and expressed, and how these shape our sense of social reality.
discourse analysis
acknowledges that language is organized and used interactively to construct different versions of events and activities.
discourse analysis
_____ integrates the wider context into the process of analysis as it subscribes to the view that social, cultural, political, and economic contexts both influence and are shaped by discourse.
discourse analysis
a set of broad methodological principles which are applied to both naturally occurring and contributed forms of talk and texts, including spoken, written, visual, symbolic, and non-verbal language
discourse analysis
It is not a clear-cut approach to qualitative research but most researchers agree that the key focus is on the production of social life through language and social practice.
discourse analysis
includes, for example, how individual identities, organizations, industries, communities, and social contexts are created and maintained through discourse.
discourse analysis
a _____ is a way of talking or writing about something to make it meaningful. It is underpinned by assumptions about what we know to be “true” with regard to how we conduct ourselves, what and how we communicate, and what we understand.
discourse
Although language is a major feature of _____, it is more than language because it constitutes, or produces, a particular view of social reality.
discourse
_____ is mainly concerned with text and talk in the processes of interaction among people and also people in organizations. It aims to show how concepts are constructed in communication
discourse analysis
While each text texts may seem straightforward on the surface, each text will have drawn to some extent on historically derived expectations and discourses that have reproduced the power of certain groups to influence meanings and therefore to shape knowledge. If you carefully examine the words chosen in, say, a speech or a report, noting the metaphors introduced, and how the report or speech is structured and focused, then it is likely that you will be able to identify particular discourses that support and justify often unrecognized interests and positions. These discourses present a particular version of social reality as natural and given. Often that reality is the one constructed by an organization which it endeavors to promote to its various stakeholders through its corporate and marketing communications.
discourse analysis
_____ appreciates that language, or discourse, is not simply a device for producing and transmitting meaning. It is a strategy which people use purposeful to try to create a particular effect.
discourse analysis
True or false? Discourse analysis is based on certain assumptions about the social world.
true
While most other qualitative approaches are concerned with an understanding of the meanings which people attribute to their experience, _____ examines the process through which meanings are generated and maintained.
discourse analysis
moves beyond textual examination to explore HOW language is used, WHY, WHEN, and by WHOM
discourse analysis
_____ entails the study of the form and content of language, the ways it is used to construct and communicate ideas and beliefs, and the political and socio-cultural contexts surrounding it
discourse analysis
In discourse analysis, the sample size is usually _____.
small
Discourse analysis was developed in the _____ and has its roots in _____, _____, _____, and _____.
1970s; linguistics; psychology; cultural studies; sociology
True or false? Discourse analysis was developed in the 1970s and has its roots in linguistics, psychology, cultural studies, and sociology.
true
focused on power and ideology and looks at how discursive practices can help produce and reproduce unequal power relations between social classes, women and men, and ethnic/cultural majorities and minorities through ways in which they represent things and people
critical discourse analysis
_____ looks at how power and inequality are socially constructed and maintained.
critical discourse analysis
_____ is politically motivated, interested in exposing power, agency, and ideology.
critical discourse analysis
While _____ analysts use the same techniques as the first version of _____, they give their attention to the impact of ideology, seeking to uncover how power relations are reproduced through everyday talk and social practice.
critical discourse; discourse analysis
mainly focuses on the notions of power and ideology, examining how discursive practices can help produce and reproduce unequal power relations between (for instance) social classes, women and men, and ethnic/cultural majorities and minorities through the ways in which they represent things and position people
critical discourse analysis
The work of _____ focuses on notions of power and inequality, including how these are socially constructed and maintained
critical discourse analysts
Acknowledging that power relations and ideologies are reflected in discourses, researchers have traditionally been concerned to examine how inequalities related to gender, race, and politics have been reproduced in text and talk.
critical discourse analysis
What are four questions that critical discourse analysts ask?
(1.) What is the relationship between texts, their producers and consumers, and the social environment in which text production and consumption occur?, (2.) What other (i.e. better) ways could such communication interactions be organized?, (3.) What ideologies are “lurking between the lines on the page and within the social structures in which interactions taken place”?, (4.) How is power deployed through relationships and what is its effect?
_____, usually associated with the ideas of Focault, aims to promote change and expose power relationships.
critical discourse analysis
True or false? It is uncommon to combine discourse analysis with other interpretive approaches and methods because this allows you to better unravel the dynamic relationships among discourse, social practice, and their local settings.
false (it is not uncommon, this often happens)
As a discourse analyst, what interests you most is _____ and its use rather than the individuals themselves who generate the various forms of communication. Therefore, the success of your study is not dependent on _____. Even a few documents or transcripts are likely to reveal a large number of linguistic patterns.
language; sample size
In discourse analysis, when making decisions about your sample size, be guided by your _____ and also by the data that are accessible. In some cases, it may not be possible to get hold of certain material because it no longer exists or because it is confidential.
research question
How is the goal of interviewing different in discourse analysis from other methodological approaches?
because in discourse analysis you are seeking to find out how communication is constructed, what it achieves and who or what is influential in the process
In discourse analysis, you approach interviews as “_____” where you encourage participants to talk in the natural, everyday language that they would use outside the interview situation. This means taking an active and interventionist role as an interviewer, rather than being passive and neutral. One way to do this is to encourage participants to discuss issues from a number of different angles.
conversational encounters
True or false? There are two competing aspects involved in interviewing for discourse analysis. On the one hand, you need to systematically cover the same range of topics with all participants and, on the other hand, you need to allow your interviews to remain open-ended enough to engage people fully and naturally in conversation. The first is achievable if you use a detailed interview guide with the same questions, probes, and follow-up questions to all participants. The second will occur only if you have excellent interpersonal skills.
true
The research focus of discourse analysis is on whole chunks of text, in order to identify “_____” which are the frameworks of beliefs that guide speakers and writers.
interpretive repertoires
True or false? There are set procedures for conducting discourse analysis.
false; although there are no set procedures for conducting discourse analysis, there are some common techniques.
Common techniques for analyzing data in discourse analysis include focusing on whole segments of _____, identifying "_____," being _____ to the way arguments are constructed, and paying attention to the _____.
language; interpretive repertoires; sensitive; context
Usually when undertaking qualitative data analysis, you are concerned to find key words, themes, issues, and patterns in your data-texts. In discourse analysis, however, you are less interested in individual words and phrases than in _____ because you want to explore accounts and language structures.
whole chunks of text
Discourse analysis proceeds on the basis of interaction with the _____.
text
In discourse analysis, you focus on how the text is constructed and what its intended purpose (function) is, paying attention to style, terminology, figures of speech which participants use and also how these are derived from one or more key metaphors. In one early text, these were called _____ (another word for discourses).
interpretive repertoires
Discourse analysis is concerned with the ways people choose from a number of _____ to achieve this communication.
repertoires
To identify _____ in communication, look for regularities and variabilities in the language used. Having found then, select a label for them, as appropriate.
interpretive repertoires
analyzing the data in discourse analysis; this notion encourages you to pay attention to the social and historical contexts in which discourse is embedded.
contextualize the texts
analyzing the data in discourse analysis; once you have uncovered and labeled the interpretive repertoires in your texts, your analysis will not stop here because texts must be examined within context: who produced this text, what institution was involved, why was the text generated?
contextualize the texts
analyzing the data in discourse analysis; when you pay attention to rhetorical detail, you identify descriptive sequences and the ways in which they have been assembled. This indicates the thinking and values behind what people are saying or writing, and highlights how arguments and perspectives are constructed.
be sensitive to the ways in which discourses are constructed
analyzing the data in discourse analysis; by scrutinizing transcripts and other texts, researchers are able to detect patterns within language. Such discoveries to understanding of the causes of those patterns. In this way, the dynamic process through which people construct a particular viewpoint is revealed.
be sensitive to the ways in which discourses are constructed
When giving attention as a critical discourse analyst to how discourses are constructed, it is important to consider the notion of _____. This refers to the way in which particular discourses come to dominate in, say, a society, organization, profession, or community, and how powerful groups (such as the media or certain corporations) use language strategically to legitimate their positions and actions in order to influence social change. Your interest then is in investigating how and why some meanings become common parlance or taken for granted and why others have become marginalized.
hegemony
What are the four steps involved in analyzing the data in discourse analysis?
(1.) READ AND RE-READ the transcripts or explore other sources of discourse, (2.) focus on and label EXTENDED SEGMENTS of language, (3.) CONTEXTUALIZE the texts, (4.) be SENSITIVE to the ways in which discourses are constructed
What are the four steps involved in analyzing the data in discourse analysis?
(1.) READ AND RE-READ the transcripts or explore other sources of discourse, (2.) focus on and label EXTENDED SEGMENTS of language, (3.) CONTEXTUALIZE the texts, (4.) be SENSITIVE to the ways in which discourses are constructed
What are the four steps involved in analyzing the data in discourse analysis?
(1.) READ AND RE-READ the transcripts or explore other sources of discourse, (2.) focus on and label EXTENDED SEGMENTS of language, (3.) CONTEXTUALIZE the texts, (4.) be SENSITIVE to the ways in which discourses are constructed
Because discourses are reflexively related to situations that make them meaningful, they do not as such reflect “_____,” but rather the meanings as constructed by people in a particular context.
reality
Why is it important for the discourse analyst to show that the findings are not just his or her opinion but are grounded in the data?
because discourses are reflexively related to situations that make them meaningful, they do not as such reflect “reality,” but rather the meanings as constructed by people in a particular context.
Validity for discourse analysis is based on what three elements?
(1.) convergence, (2.) agreement, (3.) coverage
Validity for discourse analysis is based on what three elements?
(1.) convergence, (2.) agreement, (3.) coverage
Validity for discourse analysis is based on _____, _____, and _____.
convergence; agreement; coverage
validity for discourse analysis; the more the same data yields similar results from the use of different methods, or from multiple analysis, the more the study can be considered valid.
convergence
validity for discourse analysis; _____ is the idea that the more the same data yields similar results from the use of different methods, or from multiple analysis, the more the study can be considered valid.
convergence
validity for discourse analysis; this is when both “native” speakers of the social languages in the data and other discourse analysts (i.e. insiders and outsiders) agree that the analysts reflects how such social languages actually can function in the settings under interrogation.
agreement
validity for discourse analysis; _____ is when both “native” speakers of the social languages in the data and other discourse analysts (i.e. insiders and outsiders) agree that the analysts reflects how such social languages actually can function in the settings under interrogation.
agreement
validity for discourse analysis; a study is valid when the analysis can be applied to related sorts of data. This includes being able to make sense of what has come before and after the situation being analyzed and being able to predict the sorts of things that might happen in related sorts of situations.
coverage
validity for discourse analysis; _____ means a study is valid when the analysis can be applied to related sorts of data. This includes being able to make sense of what has come before and after the situation being analyzed and being able to predict the sorts of things that might happen in related sorts of situations.
coverage
True or false? In dealing with validity for discourse analysis, it would be sufficient for you to concentrate on analyzing written text only.
false; Instead, you would need to apply other methods (such as interviews and observations) in order to introduce other forms of text, or you would need to undertake a member check, or you would need to re-analyze the data after the first round of analysis. In addition, in order to contextualize the analysis, you would need to draw connections between the historical and current settings and the wider social context in which the data is situated by, for example, examining media archives or other documents in the public domain.
True or false? Validity is an important quality criterion in discourse analysis.
true
What are six limitations of discourse analysis?
(1.) tendency to consider the CHOSEN SAMPLE OF DISCOURSE IS SUFFICIENT, (2.) "NON-REALIST" STANCE overlooks pre-existing material and social objects which act independently of language, (3.) concentrates too much on TEXTS WHICH THE ANALYST FINDS OBJECTIONABLE, (4.) considerable EXPERTISE IS NEEDED to conduct interviews for discourse analysis, (5.) discourse analysis is often DIFFICULT AND TIME-CONSUMING, (6.) work is likely to be IDEOLOGICALLY BIASED
What are six limitations of discourse analysis?
(1.) tendency to consider the CHOSEN SAMPLE OF DISCOURSE IS SUFFICIENT, (2.) "NON-REALIST" STANCE overlooks pre-existing material and social objects which act independently of language, (3.) concentrates too much on TEXTS WHICH THE ANALYST FINDS OBJECTIONABLE, (4.) considerable EXPERTISE IS NEEDED to conduct interviews for discourse analysis, (5.) discourse analysis is often DIFFICULT AND TIME-CONSUMING, (6.) work is likely to be IDEOLOGICALLY BIASED
What are six limitations of discourse analysis?
(1.) tendency to consider the CHOSEN SAMPLE OF DISCOURSE IS SUFFICIENT, (2.) "NON-REALIST" STANCE overlooks pre-existing material and social objects which act independently of language, (3.) concentrates too much on TEXTS WHICH THE ANALYST FINDS OBJECTIONABLE, (4.) considerable EXPERTISE IS NEEDED to conduct interviews for discourse analysis, (5.) discourse analysis is often DIFFICULT AND TIME-CONSUMING, (6.) work is likely to be IDEOLOGICALLY BIASED
the study of phenomena and the lived experiences of individuals
phenomenology
_____ is the study of phenomena and the lived experiences of individuals.
phenomenology
True or false? Phenomenology is both a philosophy and a method of research.
true
In _____, we are interested in how participants make sense of the world around them and are describing the "essential structures" of participants' experiences and what they mean to them.
phenomenology
Within _____, you want to see things through the eyes of the participants, taking out all of your own preconceived ideas about an event or experience.
phenomenology
True or false? Based on the definitions of phenomenology, we could argue that all qualitative research is phenomenological.
true
Some writers imply that all qualitative research is -- at least in a general way -- phenomenological as it is rooted in the "_____" of participants and focuses on phenomena of experience that are unique to an individual as well as those which are shared with others on the basis of common humanity.
lived experience
Phenomenology is both a philosophy and a methodological approach, with its origins in nineteenth-century _____ and _____.
philosophy; psychology
_____ is the examination of things according to the lived experiences (and consciousness) of individuals.
phenomenology
_____ researchers are interested in how participants make sense of the world around them.
phenomenological
Phenomenological researchers describe the "_____" of experience and what these mean for participants.
essential structures
Phenomenology helps you to understand the life experiences -- the “_____” -- of other people.
lifeworld
True or false? Phenomenology does more than enable you to see things from the perspective of participants; it offers a way of understanding the sense-making framework that each individual has developed over time
true
This is the means by which individuals make something meaningful, such as a new event, experience, or tangible object.
phenomenology
In _____,mMeaning or a sense-making framework often emerges through communication with others. It shapes how individuals respond to events and experiences.
phenomenology
Whereas other qualitative research approaches also attempt to see things through the eyes of the people they study, _____ goes further because it provides a means for you to set aside your own preconceived ideas about an event or an experience in order to understand it from the world in which research participants exist.
phenomenology
Through _____, you can illuminate human thinking and behavior from the inside.
phenomenology
In summary, if you wish to carry out _____ research you need to go beyond the surface to see the _____ nature of things
phenomenological; essential
In _____, you should take nothing at face value but look at everything from the perspectives of other people. This means developing empathy by immersing yourself in the situation in the same way as participants themselves
phenomenology
In _____, the focus is on the essential features that remain constant, reducing something to its "_____" by getting rid of elements that are dependent on environment or circumstance.
phenomenology; essential
In _____, by stripping away the everyday, and going to the very foundations of things, you arrive at a recognition of the essence, or the “real,” “intended” meaning, of what is under investigation.
phenomenology
True or false? In phenomenology, it is important that the participants in your study have a personal and intimate experience of the phenomenon under investigation.
true
The aim of _____ research is to make sense of a phenomenon according to participants' own terms, identifying the _____ or "_____" meaning of the phenomenon under investigation.
phenomenological; essence; real
In terms of PR and phenomenology, most research centers on _____ and how their life experiences have influenced their understanding and experiences of _____ and _____.
consumers; brands; advertisements
Studies utilizing the phenomenological approach in public relations have mainly been limited to investigations of _____ and how their life experiences have influenced their understanding and experiences of _____ and _____.
consumers; brands; advertisements
True or false? Phenomenology has the potential to be a valuable research tool for investigating a wide range of topics such as how different stakeholders perceive the communication activities of organizations, how the cultural expectations of publics shape the images they hold of companies, how clients understand and experience the consultancy-client relationship, how male executives respond to female leaders, how employees experience particular episodes of internal communication activity, and so on.
true
At the center of phenomenology is a concept called _____ which acknowledges that each person’s reality is different but that we also have common experiences and shared perspectives.
lifeworld
acknowledges that each person’s reality is different but that we also have common experiences and shared perspectives
lifeworld
each of us, as individuals, exists in a unique _____ that is made up of objects, people, actions, and institutions.
lifeworld
each person’s subjective experience of their everyday life, that is, it is their social reality, and this determines the meanings they attribute to their actions and the actions of others
lifeworld
A major concept arising from Husserl’s work is that of _____, which means that individuals do not exist independently of others but live in a shared world. This means that we can experience the world from another’s point of view.
intersubjectivity
at the core of phenomenological study
lifeworld
at the core of phenomenological study is the notion of _____, the recognition that the reality of each individual is different and individual actions can only be understood through understanding this of individuals and also their shared perspectives.
lifeworld
the world that people experience together; individual actions can only be explained by understanding individual of these and shared perspectives
lifeworld
In phenomenology, your job as the research is to access people's "_____" to interpret their motives, actions, and their point of view.
common sense thinking
It is your task as a phenomenological researcher to access people's "_____" to interpret their motives, actions, and their social world from their point of view.
common-sense thinking
True or false? Phenomenology employs one particular method.
false (although phenomenology employs no one particular method, there are a number of features that are common to phenomenological studies)
What are the five steps in the process of conducting phenomenological research?
(1.) articulating the PHILOSOPHICAL BASIS of the study, (2.) BRACKETING ASSUMPTIONS, (3.) define the MAIN PHENOMENON you want to investigate, (4.) work with SMALL SAMPLES AND CONDUCT LONG INTERVIEWS, (5.) apply THEMATIC DATA ANALYSIS
What are the five steps in the process of conducting phenomenological research?
(1.) articulating the PHILOSOPHICAL BASIS of the study, (2.) BRACKETING ASSUMPTIONS, (3.) define the MAIN PHENOMENON you want to investigate, (4.) work with SMALL SAMPLES AND CONDUCT LONG INTERVIEWS, (5.) apply THEMATIC DATA ANALYSIS
What are the five steps in the process of conducting phenomenological research?
(1.) articulating the PHILOSOPHICAL BASIS of the study, (2.) BRACKETING ASSUMPTIONS, (3.) define the MAIN PHENOMENON you want to investigate, (4.) work with SMALL SAMPLES AND CONDUCT LONG INTERVIEWS, (5.) apply THEMATIC DATA ANALYSIS
process of conducting phenomenological research; phenomenological studies begin with a discussion of the study underpinning the research. This is important because of the variety of philosophical strands of phenomenology.
articulating the philosophical basis of the study
process of conducting phenomenological research; before you are aiming to look at phenomena in a fresh way, it is essential to state and reflect on your own assumptions regarding the phenomena you are investigating and then put them aside so that any preconceptions you may hold do not get in the way of your understanding of the experiences of your participants.
bracketing assumptions
process of conducting phenomenological research; once you have identified a phenomenon that you wish to investigate, you develop research questions which explore its meaning for your participants.
define/focus on the main phenomenon you want to investigate
process of conducting phenomenological research; although written accounts of participants’ experiences are used as data sources, typically data are derived from long interviews with individuals who have experience and in-depth knowledge of the phenomenon under study. Because the depth of research interviews and the extensive analytical process that is required, the sample is generally very small, often no more than 10.
work with small samples and conduct long interviews
What is the eventual goal of phenomenological data analysis?
to present an exhaustive, analytic description of the phenomenon under study; it should reflect the rich, "lived" experience of the participants
How is the procedure of thematic analysis by Colaizzi distinguished from other forms of qualitative analysis?
the analysis does not interact with the data collection. This means that you analyze each interview (or written text) separately, presenting individual description before combining your analysis into a composite description. At the end, you should be able to provide your reader with a sense of the whole, that is, the essence of the phenomenon.
In _____, you analyze each interview (or written text) separately, presenting individual description before combining your analysis into a composite description. At the end, you should be able to provide your reader with a sense of the whole, that is, the essence of the phenomenon.
thematic analysis
What are the seven steps of thematic analysis? (long version)
(1.) read through interviews and narratives over until you are familiar with them and they give a SENSE OF THE WHOLE, (2.) go back to narratives and look specifically for SIGNIFICANT STATEMENTS, (3.) FORMULATE MEANINGS, when you take each statement and try to make sense of it in the participant's own terms/original context, (4.) repeat process for each interview and organize meanings into CLUSTERS OF THEMES, (5.) EXHAUSTIVE DESCRIPTION in which you provide a detailed description of participants feelings and perspectives and integrate all the clusters of themes into one account that articulates participants' views of the phenomenon, (6.) formulate a DESCRIPTION OF THE WHOLE PHENOMENON and identify its fundamental structure or essence, (7.) MEMBER CHECK and ask participants if your description validates their original experiences
What are the seven steps of thematic analysis? (long version)
(1.) read through interviews and narratives over until you are familiar with them and they give a SENSE OF THE WHOLE, (2.) go back to narratives and look specifically for SIGNIFICANT STATEMENTS, (3.) FORMULATE MEANINGS, when you take each statement and try to make sense of it in the participant's own terms/original context, (4.) repeat process for each interview and organize meanings into CLUSTERS OF THEMES, (5.) EXHAUSTIVE DESCRIPTION in which you provide a detailed description of participants feelings and perspectives and integrate all the clusters of themes into one account that articulates participants' views of the phenomenon, (6.) formulate a DESCRIPTION OF THE WHOLE PHENOMENON and identify its fundamental structure or essence, (7.) MEMBER CHECK and ask participants if your description validates their original experiences
What are the seven steps of thematic analysis? (short version)
(1.) sense of the whole, (2.) significant statements, (3.) formulate meanings, (4.) clusters of themes, (5.) exhaustive description, (6.) description of the whole phenomenon, (7.) member check
What are the seven steps of thematic analysis? (short version)
(1.) sense of the whole, (2.) significant statements, (3.) formulate meanings, (4.) clusters of themes, (5.) exhaustive description, (6.) description of the whole phenomenon, (7.) member check
thematic analysis; when you have interviewed participants, listened to their narratives (in transcripts and/or written accounts) and familiarized yourself with their words, try to become aware of the feelings and the meanings inherent in the narratives in order to obtain a "_____."
sense of the whole
thematic analysis; return to each of your participants’ narratives and focus only on the phrases and sentences that directly pertain to the phenomenon under study. Scrutinize every piece of the data for statements that you consider are important to the phenomenon, isolate these “_____” from the rest and list them all.
significant statements
thematic analysis; here you take each significant statement, try to uncover its meaning and make sense of it in the participant’s own terms. What you are trying to do is to spell out the meaning of each significant statement according to its original context. This helps to bring out meanings that initially may be hidden.
formulating meanings
thematic analysis; repeat this process for each interview or written account and then organize all the different meanings into _____.
clusters of themes
thematic analysis; provide a detailed analytic description of participants’ feelings and perspectives contained in the themes. Colaizzi calls this step “_____.” This is where you integrate all the clusters of themes into one account that articulates participants’ views of the phenomenon.
exhaustive description
thematic analysis; at this point, you attempt to formulate an exhaustive _____ under investigation and identify its fundamental structure, or essence.
description of the whole phenomenon
thematic analysis; the last step is the _____ in which you take your findings back to participants, asking them if your description validates their original experiences.
member check
involves giving participants a summary of each interview with the themes that you have found highlighted
member checking
Within the member check, you want participants to answer what 1 question?
"does your description validate their original experiences?"
_____ involves giving participants a summary of each interview with the themes that you have found highlighted. As they read, you want them to answer 1 question: does your description validate their original experiences?
member checking
The last step of thematic analysis is the _____, in which you take your findings back to participants, asking them if your description validates their original experiences.
member checking
What are the two major limitations of phenomenological research?
(1.) it is very difficult to TAKE YOUR OWN BIASES OUT and describe experiences/bracket them without letting your own values, beliefs, and preconceptions influence the findings, (2.) it is difficult to FIND PEOPLE who have experienced the phenomena and/or who are willing to spend time in extended discussions about it
What are the two major limitations of phenomenological research?
(1.) it is very difficult to TAKE YOUR OWN BIASES OUT and describe experiences/bracket them without letting your own values, beliefs, and preconceptions influence the findings, (2.) it is difficult to FIND PEOPLE who have experienced the phenomena and/or who are willing to spend time in extended discussions about it
involves reconstructing the role of communication and the lives of people in other times and contexts
first strand of historical research
The _____ is focused on communication activities, issues, causes, and the people involved (i.e., communication, organizations, and stakeholders).
first strand of historical research
An example of the _____ is conducting a public relations or marketing communications history.
first strand of historical research
Examples of the _____ includes postwar PR, North American magazine ads, and World War II poster campaigns.
first strand of historical research
If you carry out research which seeks to imaginatively reconstruct the role of communication and the lives of people in other times and contexts, you are within the _____.
first strand of historical research
If you are conducting a public relations or marketing communications history, it is an example of the _____.
first strand of historical research
With the _____, the focus of your study is on communication activities issues, causes, and the people involves (such as communicators, organizations, and stakeholders).
first strand of historical research
Exemplar texts of the _____ include the histories of British public relations as a professional practice, postwar public relations and the consultancy Hill and Knowlton, North American magazine advertising, and World War II poster campaigns.
first strand of historical research
concerned with communication related to activities, issues, causes, and the people involved within their wider historical contexts
first strand of historical research/public relations and marketing communications history
involves producing a history of thought or ideas
second strand of historical research
The _____ involves producing a history of thought or ideas, so you are tracing and interpreting ideas, concepts, theories, or schools of thought about phenomena.
second strand of historical research
Within the _____, you can look at national, regional, governmental, institutional, organizational, and professional contexts in which PR histories can be researched.
second strand of historical research
Through the _____ you can look at broad political, economic, social, or international contexts, or a specific influential individual (i.e., activist).
second strand of historical research
Examples of the _____ include A History of Schools of Marketing Thought or A PR History of Activism and Anti-slavery.
second strand of historical research
If you follow the _____, you are involved in producing a history of thought or ideas.
second strand of historical research
Here your interest is in tracing and interpreting ideas, concepts, theories, or schools of thought about phenomena.
second strand of historical research
In marketing there are numerous types of this type of review, such as A History of Schools of Marketing Thoughts, and an early history of advocacy advertising by Marchland.
second strand of historical research
trace ideas, concepts, theories, or schools of thought through time
second strand of historical research/histories of thought or ideas in public relations and marketing communications
There are two stands of historical research, including the _____ that focuses on communication and people within their wider historical context and the _____ that is concerned with tracing ideas and thought through time.
first strand of historical research; second strand of historical research
With historical research, you are looking at _____ sources (eyewitness reports, public records and legal documents, diaries, letters, minutes of meetings, original press releases, corporate records/reporters, etc.) and/or _____ sources (newspaper stories, reviews of industry reports, etc.).
original; secondary
Within historical research, with each source, you need to demonstrate the _____, determine the _____ of the author, examine the _____ in which the documents were written, and the ways in which they _____ to other related documents.
relevance; motives; circumstances; relate
True or false? Within historical research, you may conduct interviews.
true
Historical research should be written from sources that were located as _____ as possible to the events being investigated; in other words, from _____ source materials such as eyewitness reports, public records and legal documents, diaries, letters, minutes of meetings, original press release, corporate records, and so on.
close; original
Within historical research, you should not ignore _____ sources, such as newspaper stories that summarize eyewitness accounts, or reviews of industry reports, because these are useful guides or maps to the overall field, or useful for establishing a theme for your work. However, as a historian, you need to take account of the _____ of secondary materials from actual historical events or practices because this is what makes them less trustworthy than original sources.
secondary; distance
What four things should you demonstrate with each source when collecting data within historical research?
(1.) RELEVANCE/provenance, (2.) MOTIVES of the author, (3.) CIRCUMSTANCES in which the source was created, (4.) the ways in which they RELATE to other documents
What four things should you demonstrate with each source when collecting data within historical research?
(1.) RELEVANCE/provenance, (2.) MOTIVES of the author, (3.) CIRCUMSTANCES in which the source was created, (4.) the ways in which they RELATE to other documents
Source materials for historical studies are primarily _____ or _____ documents, often found in archives such as museum collections of private or personal records, or in government or professional association archives and corporate archives.
written; visual
Another important source of historical data is the _____ and _____ available from key witnesses through recorded interviews. Although oral history participants may suffer from “informant nostalgia” -- the remembering of the past as better than it actually was experienced -- or may remember selectively for self-serving purposes, nevertheless interview data as oral history have distinct advantages.
spoken memories; personal commentaries
When analyzing and writing historical research, again you are going to _____ and _____ your evidence, looking for broad themes that link your ideas.
code; categorize
When writing historical research, you should use very _____ writing and thoroughly _____ your research.
descriptive; explain
True or false? In many ways, the process of analyzing the data in historical research is similar to that for qualitative research generally, whereby you code and categorize your evidence, searching for broad themes that will link the different ideas found in your multiple sources of data.
true
Qualitative content analysis or analytical techniques associated with discourse analysis are commonly employed in historical research.
true
As in longitudinal research, your interest in historical research is in types of _____ or patterns of activities, influences, or ideas that occur over periods of time.
causation
In historical research, having interpreted and synthesized the data, your task then is to create a _____, or story of the past, that may be linear following a timeline, topical or thematic, geographical or sociological, structured around topics such as class or gender, politics or economics, and driven by more critical concerns of power, exploitation and class conflict.
narrative
Much historical writing is _____, although explanation is also involved.
descriptive
True or false? Historical narratives usually give emphasis to characters, settings, and events, which include actions taken by the characters as well as happenings, that is, how settings impinge on characters.
true
Histories are often presented as _____, written descriptively and often engaging with theory. They cumulatively build upon and revise previous histories.
case studies
when you work reflexively over time with members of an organization, work group, or community to address an issue or problematic situation which is of "genuine concern."
action research
when you work reflexively over time with members of an organization, work group, or community to address an issue or problematic situation which is of "genuine concern."
action research
when you work reflexively over time with members of an organization, work group, or community to address an issue or problematic situation which is of "genuine concern."
action research
when you work reflexively over time with members of an organization, work group, or community to address an issue or problematic situation which is of "genuine concern."
action research
In _____, you work reflexively over time with members of an organization, work group, or community to address an issue or problematic situation which is of “genuine concern.”
action research
In PR, through _____ we can explore the dynamics of communication between an organization or community and its stakeholders or publics.
action research
Within _____, you may want to improve the communication in an organization, make a contribution to marketing or communication knowledge, or empower oppressed stakeholders or publics (critical theory).
action research
In action research you are using _____ (working with others) and a _____ (constantly gathering data and reflecting on what you have found).
collaboration; cycle enquiry process
Action research is an umbrella term for a number of different participatory approaches which involve the researcher as both _____ and _____ of change.
scholar; facilitator
you work reflectively over time with members of an organization, work group, or community to address an issue or problematic situation which is of “genuine concern” to members and about which they reflect and take action based on the research intervention
action research
True or false? Commonly, action researchers are members of the organization they study, involved in creating change communication strategies at the same time as researching them.
true
A goal of _____, then, is to collaboratively produce practical knowledge that is useful to people in the everyday conduct of their lives and to stimulate change either within the setting or within those collaborating in the research.
action research
This involves working with participants as co-researchers in an iterative cycle of mutually identifying problems, diagnosing them, planning communication strategies to deal with the problems, taking action to intervene, evaluating the results of the action, learning from the evaluation and reflection, and then planning subsequent interventions
action research
The emphasis in action research is on _____ and _____ change.
studying; stimulating
The participatory nature of action research makes it ideal for exploring the dynamics of _____ between an organization or community and its stakeholders, especially internal stakeholders or publics
communication
Researchers have different reasons for choosing action research as a methodological approach and these tend to be _____ (to improve the communication practices of organizations), _____ (to make a contribution to marketing communication knowledge) and/or _____ (to empower stakeholders or publics who are oppressed in some way).
instrumental; theoretical; emancipatory
The aim of action research is to improve _____ and to extend _____.
practice; theory
Action research is a valuable methodology for creating _____ while studying it.
change
It is mainly of use in a specific context in which a local problem needs a solution or where a situation needs change.
action research
As the researcher in action research, you are examining change while working as a _____ or _____.
consultant; facilitator
_____ is an umbrella term for a number of different participatory approaches which involve the researcher as both _____ and facilitator of _____.
action research; scholar; change
In your role as a researcher in action research, you examine change while simultaneously working as a _____ or _____, using your research as a methodology for transforming communication among the people in your research setting.
consultant; facilitator
What are the five steps involved in the iterative cycle of conducting action research?
(1.) groundwork, (2.) intervention, (3.) evaluation, (4.) continuing the cycle
What are the five steps involved in the iterative cycle of conducting action research?
(1.) groundwork, (2.) intervention, (3.) evaluation, (4.) continuing the cycle
process of conducting action research; identifying and diagnosing the problem through research, prioritizing and reflecting throughout
groundwork
process of conducting action research; at this stage, you should identify problem areas that participants want to improve and thoroughly examine the communication practices that seem to need change and intervention. Encourage participants to discuss these identified problems with their colleagues and others interested in the project, including clients, requesting their ideas and confirmation of the areas in need of improvement. It is likely that you will employ a range of methods to ascertain the problems, including observations, interviews, brainstorming, and focus group sessions.
groundwork
process of conducting action research; planning your change strategies, taking action, reflecting throughout
intervention
process of conducting action research; the planning of changes and the action research interventions, such as new communication strategies. This involves you in drawing up a budget, suggesting a timescale and agreeing details of how to implement the action plan. At all times, your change communication planning and subsequent actions should be purpose driven, that is, to solve the identified problem.
intervention
process of conducting action research; evaluating and revising understandings, formulating action-based theories that provide practical solutions, and reflecting on the process
evaluation
process of conducting action research; during the intervention stage when you are implementing change through new or improved communication strategies, you are also carrying out this process, carefully monitoring every step and procedure. As an outcome of this critical assessment, practitioners, together with your input, will be able to reflect on their practices, modifying them, making further interventions and then once again evaluating everything.
evaluation
process of conducting action research; of groundwork, planning and intervention, and evaluation.
continuing the cycle
process of conducting action research; this spiral of acting, monitoring, reflecting, and building pragmatic theories to inform further action continues until participants are satisfied with the improvement which has been made.
continuing the cycle
True or false? Each stage of action research stages overlaps with the others are you reflect, learn, and revise throughout.
true
True or false? In action research, the research design is predetermined.
false; the research design is not predetermined; it changes according to the reflections and learning of everyone involved in the project
True or false? Action research is cyclical, reflective, and dynamic.
true
True or false? Action research is cyclical, reflective, and dynamic.
true
used when there is no previous research and you do not know where your research is going to go
grounded theory
conducting interviews at the same time; you are observing behaviors in a specific behavior or group and going through the research process at every step. You are constantly comparing one interview to the net interview to see if what people are saying matches up with your observations.
grounded theory
a very CYCLICAL process, using the same methods throughout the entire process
grounded theory
used especially in brand-new PR campaigns or brand new types of technology that we have no idea how they are going to be adopted
grounded theory
in _____ we do not have hypotheses or research questions, we are simply looking at phenomenons and everything is emerging as we go
grounded theory
In _____, making codes and categories is the last thing you do. You have your entire data set and may have jotted down themes as they emerged, then you go and code things into specific categories.
grounded theory
This theory looks at specific contexts, such as one specific show like Survivor.
substantive theory
This theory is more general, such as looking at gender differences on TV in general.
formal theory
Regardless of what type of theory we use in grounded theory, we are utilizing both _____ and _____ types of sources.
primary; secondary
The whole point of grounded theory is to build a _____ through codes and connections.
theory
"The Cocktail Waitress" (at a bar) and "My Children, My Gold" (seven single mothers and their experiences) are examples of _____.
ethnographes
literally going into an environment, experiencing and observing everything
ethnography
Involves studying the culture surrounding a subculture. For example, going into the Amish community or rave culture.
ethnography
the main methodology in anthropology -- living with cultures or subcultures that are foreign; also following PR specialists to see, feel, and hear what it is like to be in the field, or being at Procter & Gamble for six months.
ethnography
a type of ethnography emphasizing thick description; looking especially for differences but also similarities between our culture and the culture we are studying
descriptive ethnography (or conventional ethnography)
a type of ethnography tied to politics in some specific form, such as college students being considered an "oppressed gorup"
critical ethnography
the most difficult type of research you can do; requires you to be incredibly honest. For example, what it means to be a professor on a tenure track or of an abusive relationship. Only about you; doing no other research other than talking about your own sources.
autoethnography
True or false? Many people do not consider autoethnography to be actual research because you are only exposing yourself.
true
An autoethnography is an example of an _____ stance.
emic
essentially a kind of written documentary; you are writing up your ethnographic research in a very creative way
impressionist tale
This type of research has been applied very specifically to things like Facebook, such as what people disclose on Facebook and what they don't as well as interpersonal relationships on Facebook. It can also be used to look at texting.
discourse analysis
using this type of research, you can look at channels of communication and how that affects the message
discourse analysis
May be looking very specifically at issues in social classes, ethnic and cultural minorities, and the way that people are represented. Also 'reverse racism," where people are racist against white people.
critical discourse analysis
not easy to define because it includes a lot of different kinds of research
phenomenology
May look at the study of experiences of individuals collectively as a group and how they have affected those individuals positively or negatively.
phenomenology
For example, looking at the shared experiences of Greek life/the phenomenon of being in a fraternity or sorority, the phenomenon of being NKU students, or the phenomenon of everyone involved in a tragedy.
phenomenology
For example, looking at the phenomenon of purchasing products and seeing how people use their experiences to buy into types of advertising, brand loyalty, etc., and use that information to figure out how to gain lifetime consumers and get consumers to purchase the product over and over again.
phenomenology and PR
Our reality, how we deal with things, our experiences are considered our "_____" or our perception.
lifeworld
As a researcher conducting this type of research, we want to understand that each person's reality is different, but also look at common threads.
phenomenology
For example, looking at an organization and all of the stakeholders that impact it positively or negatively or looking at external and internal communication and how it impacts a significant historical event.
first strand of historical research
how communication affects specific contexts and times in history
first strand of historical research
looking at the history of the profession of PR, including how politics has played into it -- Woodrow Wilson was the first to have a PR practitioner on staff, etc.
first strand of historical research
looking at a very specific time and a very specific context
first strand of historical research
For example, Principles of PR including how to conduct a campaign, what objectives need to be included in a campaign, how to differentiate tactics, etc. and how these concepts came to be would be examples of the _____.
second strand of historical research
For example, specific government agencies and how they came to be or cultural significance and significant people.
second strand of historical research
the _____ looks at a specific time or context, whereas the _____ looks at national, regional, or cultural elements.
first strand of historical research; second strand of historical research
looking at different schools of marketing and how they came to be would be examples of the _____
second strand of historical research
involves putting forth a problem and then solutions to solve that problem; address the problem and offer solutions
action research
Questions involved with this type of research are "how is the organization communicating with the community and vice versa" and "how can they work together to solve the problem?"
action research
There are a lot of limitations to this kind of research but it is very worthwhile.
action research