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107 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Erickson's Eight Stages of psychosocial development |
1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy) (Hope) |
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Maslow's Needs Hierarchy
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1: Physiological Needs
2: Safety Needs 3: Belongingness and Love Needs 4: Esteem Needs 5: Self-actualization Needs 6: Cognitive Needs 7: Aesthetic Needs |
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Marie Jahoda defined adult mental health as person's having
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1: Positive attitudes toward self
2: Self-actualization 3: Integrated psychological functioning 4: Personal autonomy or independence 5: Adequate perception of reality 6: Mastery over personal environment |
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Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development
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1: Sensory-motor (birth to 2) - Learns to make adaptive responses to environmental stimuli
2: Preoperational thought (2-6) - Develops the ability to conceptualize the environment, but the interpretation is self-centered and not yet realistic 3: Concrete Operations (6-11) - Develops an organized system of logical categories for use in conceptualizing and coping with the present environment 4: Formal Operations (11-15) - Develops the capacity to formulate hypotheses and to test predictions about future situations using logic, abstract thinking, and the capacity to consider alternatives and possible consequences. |
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Perry's 4 levels of cognitive development (Specifically applicable to college students)
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1: Dualism - The person views the world in terms of absolute right or wrong; the learner's role is to receive "truth," and may encounter difficulty with conflicting viewpoints
2: Multiplicity - The person acknowledges the possibility of multiple viewpoints, but lacks criteria to evaluate the merits of coexisting and possibly conflicting viewpoints 3: Relativism - The person views knowledge as relative and not connected with the concepts of truth or rightness; truth emerges from both personal experience and external argument 4: Commitment to Relativism - The person accepts responsibility and commits to an identity in regard to both an internal value system and external choices such as career or life partner. |
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Perry's 9 positions of cognitive development
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Position 1 (Dualism) - The world is viewed in polar, absolute terms
Position 2 (Dualism) - Diversity of opinion is perceived, but rejected as confusion among unqualified authorities Position 3 (Multiplicity) - Diversity and uncertainty are viewed as legitimate, but temporary Position 4 (Multiplicity) - Uncertainty is perceived as extensive and knowledge is viewed as just personal opinion Position 5 (Relativism) - Knowledge and values are viewed as relativisitic and contextual Position 6 (Relativism) - The person accepts the need to establish a personal orientation in a relativistic world by making some sort of commitment Position 7 (Commitment to Relativism) - Initial commitments are made Position 8 (Commitment to Relativism) - Implications of commitments are experienced and issues of responsibility are explored Position 9 (Commitment to Relativism) - Identity is affirmed and commitment is expressed through lifestyle and personal values |
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Kohlberg's 3 levels of moral development
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1: Preconventional morality - Consequences to the self-guided moral behavior
2: Conventional morality - Concern for meeting socially-defined expectations guides moral behavior 3: Postconventional morality - Behavior is guided by self-imposed commitment to moral principles |
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Kohlberg's 6 stages of moral development
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1: (Preconventional) - Obedience and Punishment Orientation - The person fears being caught and the subsequent punishment; severity of the punishment determines badness of the act
2: (Preconventional) - Instrumental Relativist Orientation - Rules are followed to satisfy personal needs; the only obligatory behavior is that which serves the person 3: (Conventional) - Interpersonal Concordance Orientation - Behavior is conducted to please and gain approval from others 4: (Conventional) - Authority, Law, and Duty Orientation - Rules are viewed as necessary to maintain social order and therefore must be obeyed for the common good. 5: (Postconventional) - Social Contract Orientation - Moral principles are examined and agreed upon by society as a whole, but can be changed by consensus 6: (Postconventional) - Universal Ethical Principles Orientation - Behavior is guided by self-chosen ethical principles that place high value on human life, equality, and dignity. |
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Cross's 5 stage model of Black racial identity development
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I. Pre-Encounter: A black person views the world from a white frame of reference, acting and thinking in ways that devalue or deny Blackness
II. Encounter: The person experiences a "shocking" event that disconfirms the pre-encounter viewpoint. Phase 1 - Realization: involved recognition that the old viewpoint no longer applies Phase 2 - Personalizing: involves testing the newly acquired viewpoint and deciding to develop a black identity. III. Immersion: The person seeks to destroy the pre-encounter orientation and construct a new Black identity. Phase 1 - Immersion: Adopting a Black worldview and identity and total withdrawal from other ethnic groups but with little internalized security Phase 2 - Emersion: Change from an oversimplified dichotomy to a critical analysis of personal views and better understanding IV. Internalization: The person achieves an inner security about personal Blackness, adopts a more pluralistic worldview. V. Internalization Commitment: The person's new identity translates into activities that benefit all members of the group. |
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Atkinson, Morten, and Sue's model of identity development for racial minorities
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1: Conformity - The person identifies exclusively with the dominant group and depreciates membership in the minority group.
2: Dissonance - The person denies personal heritage and experiences inner conflicts about majority and minority status. 3: Resistance and Immersion - The person experiences guilt at having "sold out" rage at having been oppressed, strong identification with the minority group rejection of the dominant society, and dislike and distrust of the dominant group members. 4: Introspection - The person achieves greater comfort with the personal racial identity, a growing sense of personal autonomy, increased concern for other oppressed groups, and ambivalence about embracing positive aspects of the majority culture. 5: Synergistic - The person experiences fulfillment, pride, and identification with the minority culture. Is open to the constructive aspects of the majority culture. |
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Super's Theory of Career Development
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1: Growth (Birth to 14)
2: Exploration (15-24) 3: Establishment (25-44) 4: Maintenance (45-65) 5: Disengagement (65+) |
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Carl Jung
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Viewed development as a life-long process in which the individual progressed from a less complete to a more complete state. Viewed the ultimate goal of development as self-actualization.
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Karen Horney
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Viewed basic anxiety as the master human motive directing human development. Suggested that basic anxiety developed from the infant's fear of being left helpless and abandoned by its caregiver in a hostile environment. Suggested that if the basic anxiety fear is not allayed the individual will develop maladaptive coping strategies.
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Levine's definition of culture
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A shared organization of ideas that includes the intellectual, moral, and aesthetic standards prevalent in a community and the meanings of communicaties' actions.
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Socialization
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The process of learning to function as a member of society by observing and acquiring social and occupational roles
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Enculturation
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The process of acquiring the characteristics of one's culture
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Stereotypes
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Rigid preconceptions held about all members of a particular group. All people hold stereotypes, both positive and negative, about cultural groups. People generally base their initial opinions of others on stereotypes.
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Cultural encapsulation or ethnocentrism
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Adherence to a universal notion of truth that disregards cultural variations. When a person is unable to accept the attitudes, beliefs, or practices other than those in the person's own culture, that person is said to be culturally encapsulated or operating from an ethnocentric viewpoint.
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Cultural Relativism
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The attempt to understand another cultural system, not in terms of personal cultural beliefs, but in its own terms.
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Race
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Family, tribe, or people belonging to the same genetic pool. Many individuals today claim biracial or multiracial ancestry
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Ethnicity
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Refers to large groups of people classified according to common racial, national, tribal, religious, linguistic, or cultural background.
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Racial, ethnic or cultural identity
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An individual's sense of belonging to a racial, ethnic, or cultural group and the part of the individual's personality that is attributable to association with the group.
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Minority group
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A group of people who consider themselves objects of collective discrimination and differential treatment in society
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Multiculturalism
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Matters having a focus on ethnicity, race, and culture
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Diversity
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Variety in regard to individual differences such as age, gender, sexual orientation, religion, or physical ability through which individuals define themselves.
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Multicultural Counseling
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Preparations and practices that integrate multicultural and cultural-specific awareness, knowledge, and skills into counseling interactions.
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Macroculture
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Dominant culture
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Theory of Meritocracy
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A prevalent myth in the macroculture that states that the ablest, most ambitious, and most hardworking individuals will attain positions of wealth and influence.
1) The individual takes precedence over the group. Three tenets: 2) The society stresses differences rather than similarities 3) Internal characteristics (personal attributes) are more influential than external characteristics (social, educational, or financial standing, race or ethnicity |
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Microcultures
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Cultural groups composed of members who share values and beliefs that bind them together.
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Assimilation
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The process by which subordinate groups (microcultures) adopt aspects of the dominant culture.
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Anglo-conformity theory
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Holds that all groups are expected to renounce their ancestry and culture and assume characteristics of the national macroculture
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Melting Pot Theory
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Amalgamation of various groups produces a stronger, more diverse society.
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Salad Bowl Theory
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Holds that many cultural groups can coexist and retain their uniqueness within the macroculture.
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Proxemics
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The study of a person's perception and use of personal and interpersonal space
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Kinesics
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The study of body movements and positions, includig facial expression, posture, gestures, and eye contact
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Paralanguage
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Vocal cues that communicate the age, gender, emotional response, and race of an individual. Includes loudness, inflection, rate of speech, use of silence, hesitation, and inflection.
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Low context communication
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Demands lengthy verbal explanations
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High context communications
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Relies on nonverbal cues and collapsed meanings understood by members of a group.
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Cognitive Complexity
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Refers to the extent of a person's personal constructs for interpreting the world. The more cognitively complex and sensitive to others' perspectives, the more tolerant of ambiguity and less anxious the individual is in unstructured or unfamiliar situations.
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Conservation (Piaget)
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The ability to understand that certain properties of an object do not change even though their appearance has changed (ex - the same amount of water in two different shaped glasses will be proclaimed by the child to be different amounts of water).
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Centration (Piaget)
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The ability to focus on ony one aspect of the properties of an object and not being able to understand that an object can have multiple properties without inherently changing.
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Reversibility
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The inability of the child to back up and rethink a problem
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Domain Specificity (Noam Chomsky)
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The concept that humans develop according to various information processing mechanisms that are specific to different areas of learning and growth.
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Noam Chomsky
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The father of modern linguistics. A leading proponent of domain specificity
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Interpersonal Therapy
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An approach that incorporates concepts and structure from cognitive-behavioral therapy and other intervention approaches.
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Margaret Mahler
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Instrumental in developing the Object-Relations Theory of psychoanalysis in which the child focuses less and less on self and begins to see the world in relation to others. 5 stages:
1) Normal Infantile Autism - Infant responds to physical stress, considers self and mother as one 2) Symbiotic Relationship - 1-2 months of age - Infant is dependent upon the mother and expects emotional congruence with the mother. 3) Separation from the symbiotic relationship - Occurs as the child gains cognitive awareness of being a separate person around 16-18 months of age 4) Individualized - takes place from about 18 months of age to age 3. 5) Integration of self (Maturation) - Age 3 1/2 to 4 If a trauma occurs during separation/individuation, borderline and narcissistic personalities often develop |
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Behavior Therapy
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A theory that is focused on current behavior as well as methods to change self-destructive behaviors
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Dunn and Dunn's Four Elements of Learning Styles
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1) Environmental elements
2) Emotional elements 3) Sociological elements 4) Physical elements |
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Dunn and Dunn's Environmental Elements of Learning
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1) Sound
2) Light 3) Temperature 4) Design |
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Dunn and Dunn's Emotional Elements of Learning
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1) Motivation
2) Persistence 3) Maturity 4) Structure |
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Dunn and Dunn's Sociological Elements of Learning
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Students can learn from different individuals at different times and in different settings. (Groups/teams/pairs/solo)
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Indicators of Substance Abuse
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1) An inability to perform at school and at home in spite of apparent cognitive capacity and the lack of other interfering factors
2) Excessive sleepiness or irritability 3) Mood swings or apparent personality changes 4) Secretive behavior 5) Sudden change in friends 6) Use of substances in dangerous situations despite the possibility of physical harm, such as driving a motor vehicle or swimming 7) Continued use that results in legal problems, such as prosecution for drunken driving, arrests for disturbing the peace, or possession of a controlled substance 8) Inability to stop using the controlled sustance in spite of social problems such as fights, conflict with family and peers, or poor school performance. |
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Elements of effective communication
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--Listening attentively without interrupting
--Responding in ways that ensure the speaker knows that she or he has been heard, including the expression of direct appreciation and validation of the speaker's views --Articulating ideas, opinions, observations, and questions clearly and directly --Seeking clarification rather than making assumptions about what the speaker is saying --Maintaining an attitude of respect at all times paying attention to things such as word usage, tone of voice, facial expressions, and other nonverbal behavior --Working to manage one's emotional reactions so they don't interfere with good communication |
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Barriers to good listening include
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--Hearing what you want to hear, not what is actually said
--Not hearing what is said at all due to one's own need to speak; waiting for the speaker to finish so we can speak causes us to think about what we are going to say instead of listening to what is being said --Biased listening; forming an opinion about the value of what is being said and therefore discounting the meaning of the words --Allowing our emotions, either negative or positive, to interfere with our ability to listen --Allowing both internal and external distractions to get in the way |
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4 Stages of Listening (SIER Model)
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1) Sensing - or attending to a stimulus
2) Interpreting - or assigning meaning to incoming information 3) Evaluating the message by forming a judgment about what is heard 4) Responding to the message |
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To be a good listener
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--Create a positive atmosphere by being alert and attentive and concentrating on the speaker
--Make eye contact and maintain an expression of genuine interest --Allow the speaker to finish a thought before responding --Avoid critical judgments in your responses --Make an effort to remember what has been said --Avoid changing the subject unless there is a really good reason to do so. When you must change the subject, explain the reason to the speaker --Be as physically relaxed as possible because relaxed posture communicates that you have time to listen and are interested |
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Responding Skills
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--Clarify the meaning of what the speaker said by checking assumptions you have made while listening to be sure you understand the speaker
--Continue to maintain eye contact as you give feedback --Keep anger and other emotions out of the interaction. Tryto express your feelings in a non-treatening way --Help the speaker with problem solving by responding positively and asking good questions --Directly express your appreciation for the speaker's ideas, even if you disagree with them. You can address disagreements more effectively once you have thanked the speaker for sharing his or her ideas --Be physically alert and use appropriate body language --Reflect the speaker's feelings back to hiim or her --Summarize the speaker's major ideas and concepts for further clarification --Use verbal and nonverbal reinforcers to let the speaker know his or her message has been received --Maintain a comfortable social distance --Give constructive feedback: feedback that is descriptive, not evaluative; offered, not imposed; and focused on behavior rather than on personal characteristics |
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In dyadic counseling, the skilled use of the following responses are essential in helping establish and maintain an effective counseling relationship
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-- Attending
-- Reflecting -- Interpreting -- Questioning -- Confronting -- Recognizing useful vs. nonuseful counselor responses |
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Attending involves ...
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-- Focused listening
-- Perceiving verbal and nonverbal messages -- Cognitive and affective parts of the client's experience |
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Reflecting Involves ...
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-- Communicating empathy
-- Neither adding to nore subracting from clients' messages -- Communicating back to the clients the main meaning of their messages -- Reflecting clients' feelings--clients' emotions--as directly expressed in words or implied through nonverbal cues -- Checking with the client to see if the counselor's reflection is accurate |
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Interpreting Involves ...
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-- Offering clients new and facilitative ways to understand their experiences
-- Basing interpretations on counselor's perceptions of the client's experiences |
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Questioning Involves ...
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-- Using open-ended and closed-ended questions
-- Asking for clarification of meaning -- Asking for information only known to the client -- Asking to understand the client's experiences better -- Misuses of questioning |
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Confronting Involves ...
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-- Verbally holding apparently discrepant or incongruent aspects of clients' messages and behaviors "in front of" clients for them to see
-- Helping clients clarify, resolve, or accept the discrepancy |
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Recognizing Useful vs. Non-Useful Counselor Responses Involves ...
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-- Useful responses facilitate clients/students moving to deeper levels of exploration, understanding, and feeling about their experiences
-- Non-useful responses detract or distract from clients'/students/ experience, remaining superficial, and limiting or discouraging exploration, understanding, and feelings about their experiences |
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Benefits of Small Group Counseling
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1) It's a natural interpersonal context for children and adolescents
2) They can provide a safe context within which students can practice interpersonal skills and get feedback 3) They allow students to hear from others with similar experiences 4) They allow many more students to be served by the counselor than in one-on-one activities |
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The facilitator's role in group counseling is to:
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encourage group development of expression, exploration, and self-disclosure, to discourage dynamics that hinder expression and openness, and to model healthy, appropriate interpersonal communication that is honest, congruent, and respectful of thers.
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Group characteristics that promote success:
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1) Cohesiveness
2) Caring 3) Level of trust among members 4) Freedom to experiment 5) Commitment to change |
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4 Possible Roles of the Consultant
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1) Advocate - directly presenting evidence and attempting to persuade the consultee to take a particular stand or action. Can be in support of a student, a group of students, or an idea to be implemented
2) Expert - Employed when there is a need to inform or educate the consultee in a specialized area (eg; interpretation of test or placement data) 3) Consultant/Collaborator - The consultee and the consultant's roles are equal in attempting to solve the problem. A three-pronged relationship involving the counselor/consultant, the teacher/consultee, and the student (and at times the student's parents). As a collaborato, the counselor takes part of the responsibility for implementing th eplan to solve the problem. 4) Process Specialist - The counselor outlines the steps needed to reach mutual goals |
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Common Procedures for all consultation processes are:
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Relationship building, diagnosis and definition of the problem, creation and implementation of a plan, and evaluation and summarization
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In Behavior Consultation
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Information regarding the problem is obtained, the problem is defined in detail, goals are set, plan strategies are developed, assessment criteria are agreed upon, and avenues of intervention are explored. Solving the problem depends on the consultee "making it happen"; therefore, it is critical that the consultee has ownership fo the plan.
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In Organizational Consultation
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the problem is in the organizational framework. Most often used when an expert in a particular area is required
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Process Consultation is used when
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the interactions of the members of an organization are examined.
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Mental Health Consultation is used when
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the mental health of a community can be improved by consulting with other human services professionals in the delivery of their services
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A developmental guidance program should be designed and implemented according to the following five guidelines:
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1) The program must be organized, have established systems of operation, and have a stated purpose
2) The guidance service must be an accepted and integral part of the school program 3) The mission statement of the guidance and counseling program should include the promotion of optimum student development and adjustment 4) The services to be delivered should include, at a minimum, testing and maintaining of appropriate records, personal counseling, distribution of educational and vocational information, appropriate placement into school programs, referrals to outside agencies and professionals, and follow-up of the services provided 5) The program should provide for identification, exploration, and development of the potential inherent in all individuals |
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Locus of Control
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The extent to which individuals believe they can control the events that effect them. Internal - the client attributes successes to his/her own personal traits. External - client attributes successes to external, environmental traits.
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Sociogram
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a visual representation of interpersonal relationships within a group.
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School counselors’ case notes are “sole possession records” and not educational records if the records are:
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1) a memory aid, 2) not accessible or shared in either verbal or written form, 3) a private note created solely by the individual possessing it and 4) include only observations and professional opinions.
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Consideration of school violence risk factors/potentiality should also be given to personal history of violence including:
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previous violent acts; age at first violent incident; family and peer relationship instability; employment problems; substance use problems; and early maladjustments such as lack of insight, negative attitudes, active symptoms of major mental illness, impulsivity and unresponsiveness to treatment. Consider feasibility of any intervention, student’s exposure to destabilizers, lack of personal support, noncompliance with remediation and stress. Also, does the language and context of the threat indicate a serious intent to do harm? The accumulation, as well as the interactive and dynamic nature of risks, should be evaluated. The information gathered should be substantiated prior to taking action against a student.
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What are the five moral principles of ethical decision making?
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1) autonomy
2) beneficence 3) nonmaleficence 4) justice 5) fairness |
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Elements of comprehensive guidance programs include:
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1) Guidance curriculum
2) Individual Planning 3) Responsive Services (individual, small group, consultation and collaboration 4) System Support (data collection, advisory boards, program management and administration) |
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List the phases of program development
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1) Planning
2) Organizing 3) Implementing 4) Evaluating |
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EDGAR
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Education Department General Administrative Regulations
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EAHCA
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Education for all Handicapped Children Act
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EHA
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Education for the Handicapped Act
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FAPE
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Free Appropriate Education
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IEP
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Individualized Education Program
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IFSP
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Individualized Family Service Plan
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IDEA
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Individuals with Disabilities Act
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ITDA
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Infants and Toddlers with Disabilities Act
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LEA
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Local Education Authority
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OCR
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Office of Civil Rights (U.S. Department of Education)
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OSERS
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Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (U.S. Department of Education)
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OSEP
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Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (U.S. Department of Education)
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SEA
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State Education Authority
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Difference between IDEA and 504
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504 is broad and beneral and includes a wider range of discrimination, while IDEA is more specific and detailed.
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Procedural requirements of an IEP
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--The child must be identified
--The child must be evaluated by a multidisciplinary team --That eligibility for special education be determined --That the IEP be developed with parental participation --Each child must be provided with an IEP on an annual basis |
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Rudolf Driekers
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Instrumental in applying Adlerian principles to group work.
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Genotype
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The genetic (inherited) makeup of the individual
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Phenotype
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The way an individual's genotype is expressed through physical and behavioral characteristics
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Tabula Rasa
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John Locke's view that children begin as a "blank slate."
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Resiliency
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The ability to adapt despite the experience of adverse circumstances
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Arnold Gesell
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A maturationist who believed that a child's growth and development was genetically pre-ordained given a normal environment.
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Functionalist theories of cognitive development
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--Proponents include Edward Thorndike, B.F. Skinner, John G. Watson, and C.L. Hull.
--Opposed the introspective techniques of psychoanalytic approaches because they did not explore the relationship with other elements in an individual's environment --Insisted that mental function be studied in relation to the world surrounding the individual |
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Associationist theories of cognitive development
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--Proponents include Ivan Pavlov and William Estes
--Believed that experience or recal of one object builds upon and causes the recall of other objects related to or associated with that object. --Based on the theories of Aristotle --Key concept is that living organisms' responses to environmental stimuli are governed by the sensory, response, and central nervous systems, which consist of innate circuitry and memories of past experiences. |
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Cognitive Theorists
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--Proponents include Jean Piaget, Edward Tolman, Albert Bandura, and Donald Norman.
--Assign a prominent role to mental processes --The process of learning depends on information received and the processing of that information, which in turn depends on mental processes, past experiences or behaviors, and present environmental factors. --Faulty cognitive processes develop from inaccurate perceptions, overgeneralization, or incomplete or erroneous information. |
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Lev Vygotsky
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Suggested that cognitive development started with social interactions and moved inward
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Behavioral Anchor
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Provides a specific example of behavior that demonstrates competency and proficiency levels. Used to help people understand what is expected of them.
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