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21 Cards in this Set
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"We see the phenotypic effects are happening to algae mutations when they grow in medium which lack either histidine or phenylalanine. These mutations probably result which process?
What is the easiest way to see if an algae lacks an amino acid? Is the fusion of two haploid cells to make a diploid zygote is sexual or asexual?" |
"We see the phenotypic effects are happening to algae mutations when they grow in medium which lack either histidine or phenylalanine. These mutations probably result from the protein synthesis process b/c we are missing amino acids in the medium. DNA, rRNA, mRNA process are NOT affected by losing amino acids.
the easiest way to see if an algae lacks an amino acid is to shove the algae into a medium without that amino acid. A fusion of two haploid cells to make a diploid zygote is SEXUAL reproduction." |
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Are protozoa unicellular? Are protozoa eukaryotes? Are protozoa heterotrophic? Do protozoa reproduce sexually or asexually?
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Protozoa are unicellular eukaryotes that are mostly heterotrophic. Protozoa reproduce sexually and asexually.
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"The E1B protein is encoded by the adenovirus. The E1B protein STOPS apoptosis. The p53 gene induces apoptosis when necessary. If a virus lacks E1B, can the virus affect cells with or without p53 expression?
p53 induces ___ when necessary. Is p53 good or bad? Is E1B good or bad? If we take away the E1B protein, what happens to the replication of cells? We have a cell that has p53 and E1B. We then add virus Y. Can virus Y produce?" |
"The E1B protein is encoded by the adenovirus. The E1B protein STOPS apoptosis. The p53 gene induces apoptosis when necessary. If a virus lacks E1B, can the virus affect cells with or without p53 expression?
The virus with E1B deleted can only infect and replicate in cells which lack p53 expression. Protein E1B FIGHTS p53. p53 induces apoptosis when necessary. If we take away the E1B protein, what happens to the replication of cells? Some cells will be affected and some will be unaffected. We have a cell that has p53 and E1B. We then add virus Y. Can virus Y produce? Yes, virus Y can replicate since the E1B will fight p53." |
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"What is the direct role of tumor initiators?
In cancer cells, do we see changes in cell cyle? changes in gene expression? ability to respond to hormonal control? Cancer often results from changes in what? Do errors in translation have a significant effect on cellular function? Only mutations in ___ cause permanent damage." |
"The direct role of tumor initiators is to cause mutations, changes in DNA sequences.
In cancer cells, we see 1) changes in cell cycle 2)changes in gene expression 3)ability to respond to hormonal control Cancer often results from a change in the gene coding for a receptor. Receptors are proteins that allow hormones to exert control over individual cells. Errors in translation do nOT have significant effect on cellular function. Only mutations in DNA cause permanent damage." |
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"What are mitotic spindle appartus made out of? Antibodies are specific to mitotic spindle apparatus. These antibodies would most likely recognitize the products of : transcription, translation, transformation, or replication
Are yeasts unicellular?" |
"Translation. The spindle is made of microtubules which are polymers of tubulin protein monomers. Transcription, transformation, and replicatino do NOT make proteins.
Yeasts are unicellular." |
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Among rats, we have 66 black, 34 brown, and 100 white. We crossed B/b a/+ with b/b a/a. What is the genetic map distance between the two loci?
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"The map distance is the frequency of crossover events. This is the number of recombinant offspring divided by the total number of offspring.
If no crossover happened, we'd have half albino (b/b a/a) and half black (Bb +a). No brown at all. Each crossover event makes a brown hamster. We should also see recombinant hamsters with Bb aa. These crossover events are lost in the crowd of albino hamsters. Since they cannot be identified, we assume that there's equal number of them as brown hamsters. So we have 2*34/200 = 34%." |
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"If you take a pituitary gland out of a baby frog, put it back when the frog grows up, the adult frog rejects the pituitary gland. Why? What is an antigen?
Adult rat pancreatic islet cells were implanted into another adult rat's thymus gland. The recepient accepted additional islet cell grafts. How?" |
"The antigens in the pituitary tissue must be present during development if they are to be recognized as ""self."" Antigen is the Y shape thing.
The T cells which recognize foreign islet cell antigens were selectively suppressed or desetroyed. Selection of T cells in the thymus is a process whereby T cells ""programmed"" to destroy self antigens are eliminated. It is possible to eliminate T cells specific to a non-self antigen if the antigen is thrust directly into the self-selection center, the thymus." |
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Can teh immune system make antibodies that recognize protozoans?
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The immune system can develop antiodies to any non-cell surface molecules includding protozoans.
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"What cells have class I MHC molecules? Class I MHC molecules are presented to:____. Class I MHC molecule present proteins that come from the: ____. Class I MHC are associated with the ____ pathway.
What cells have Class II MHC molecules? Class II MHC present to these cells:___. Class II present peptides derived from ____ so they're the ____ pathway. |
"Class I MHC molecules are found on nearly nucleated cell in the body. They present to T cells. They present peptides from cytosolic proteins so they're known as the endogenous pathway.
Class II MHC molecules are found ONLY on antigen presenting cells and B cells. They present peptides derived from outside the cell so they're the exogenous pathway. Class II MHC present to helper T cells. |
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When steroid hormones enter a cell, what do they attach to? Which is faster acting: steroid or peptide hormoens? Which has longer lasting influence: steroid or hormone?
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When steroid hormones enter a cell, they bind to specific receptor proteins that directly modify transcription. Since steroids affect transcription directly, their influence is SLOWER than peptide homrones and their effects are longer lasting.
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"If we increase acetycholinesterase inhibitors, does ACh escpaing to bloodstream increase or decrease? Does gastointestinal motility increase or decrease?
Do both smooth and skeletal muscle have actin-myosin crossbridging that causes contraction? Which of the 3 muscle types have striations? Which of the 3 muscle types can be inhibited and/or excited? |
"If we increase acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, ACh espaing from synpases to bloodstresm increases. Gastrointestinal motility increaes.
Smooth and skeletal muscle both have actin-myosin crossbridging that causes contraction. Only skeletal and cardiac have striations. Smooth muscles do not have striations. Skeletal muscle cannot be inhibited. Cardiac and smooth can be inhibited and excited. |
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If myosin and actin bind together, what happens to viscosity? Where does ATP bind to : myosin or actin? Creatine phosphate is used to make ___ from ADP. Creatine phosphate can be hydrolyzed to ___ + Pi.
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When myosin and actin bind together, viscosity increases. ATP binds to the myosin head, breaks the bond between myosin and actin, and decreases viscosity. Creatine phosphate is used to make ATP from ADP & can be hydrolyzed to creatine + Pi with delta G < O for the reaction.
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"Do all graph have just one y-axis?
Directly proportional = ? Do central chemoreceptors detect O2 levels? Do peripheral chemoreceptors measure O2 levels? |
"If you're lost for info on a graph, there could be TWO y-axis.
Directly proportional EQUALS linear!!!! Central chemoreceptors do NOT measure O2 levels. They measure CO2 levels. Peripheral chemoreceptors monitor O2 levels. " |
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What comes first: development of the 3 germ layers or gastrulation? If neural tissues is more differentiated, is it more or less developed?
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"Forming the 3 germ layers comes BEFORE gastrulation.
If neural tissue is MORE differentiated, this means it is MORE developed." |
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If O2 levels are too low, what detects it and what happens to ventilation?"
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When peripheral chemoreceptors notice that O2 levels are low, they react by increasing ventilation.
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What is the first step in smooth muscle contraction? Are smooth muscles mononucleated? Which developed more force: smooth or skeletal? Which can shorten by a greater %: smooth or skeletal?"
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Increasing cytosolic Ca+ is the first step in smooth muscle contraction.
Smooth muscle are mononucleated. Smooth muscle generates less force than skeletal muscle, but it can shorten by a greater percentage." |
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Can ALL the Ca+ in the cytoplasm go outside the cell via faciliatated diffusion?
Do macrophages display with class I or II MHCs? Do B cells present antigens? Do T cells present antigens?" |
A cell is infected by a virus and express a cytoplasmic viral antigen. The antigen will be presented on the class I MHC molecule.
All the Ca+ in the cytoplasm CANNOT be removed by facilitated diffusion through a Ca+ channel in the cell membrane. The extracellular fluid has Ca+ which prevents ALL of it from going out. Macrophages can display antigens with class I & II MHCs. B cells DO present antigens. T cells do NOT present antigens with Class II MHC, but they can present with Class I MHC." |
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"We have a circular plasmid in bacteria. The plasmid has a cap gene. In the middle of the cap gene is a EcoR1 site that can divide the plasmid and divide the cap gene. If we add restriction enzymes and split up the cap gene, what happens to cap resistance?
Are Plasmids are transcribed and translated simultaneously? Are Plasmids replicated by bacterial enzymes? EcoRI (0/6), HindIII (1.1), BamHI (1.5). All sizes are in kilobase pairs (kb). A kb is a length of double stranded DNA with 1000 nucleotides. What is total length of plasmid? We have a plasmid, pBR325. We have a bacteriophage iwth a gene called nrd+. The gene, nrd+, has two EcoRI sites on it. pBR325 has one EcoRI site on it. We can use restriction enzymes to cut open the pBR325 and extract out the nrd+ gene from the bacteriophage. Then the gene, nrd+, can be added in 2 different orientations to the pBR325. If it adds to both, does it have a promoter? What is a promoter? Is it the binding site for repressor? Is it a molecule that inactivates the repressor and turns on the operon?" |
"We have a circular plasmid in bacteria. The plasmid has a cap gene. In the middle of the cap gene is a EcoR1 site that can divide the plasmid and divide the cap gene. If we add restriction enzymes and split up the cap gene, what happens to cap resistance? We lost it. An entire gene must be intact for it to operate.
Plasmids are transcribed and translated simultaneously. Plasmids are replicated by bacterial enzymes. EcoRI (0/6), HindIII (1.1), BamHI (1.5). All sizes are in kilobase pairs (kb). A kb is a length of double stranded DNA with 1000 nucleotides. 6kb = 6000 nucleotides is teh TOTAL length for the plasmid. We have a plasmid, pBR325. We have a bacteriophage iwth a gene called nrd+. The gene, nrd+, has two EcoRI sites on it. pBR325 has one EcoRI site on it. We can use restriction enzymes to cut open the pBR325 and extract out the nrd+ gene from the bacteriophage. Then the gene, nrd+, can be added in 2 different orientations to the pBR325. If it adds in both, it has a promoter. If it adds in only direction, it doesn't have a promoter. Promoter = binding site for RNA polymerease. It is NOT binding site for repressor. It is NOT a molecule that inactivates the repressor and turns on the operon. " |
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"If you're given an experiment with a bunch of plates with amino acids on them and E.coli bacteria, you have to figure out the genome of the bacteria according to their aminio acids. What assumption do you make?
If a bacteria can grow on a plate that doesn't have arginine, is the bacteria arginine+ or arginine- in their genome? If bacteria doesn't have lactose on its plate, but it has glucose on its plate, can the bacteria grow? Auxotroph? Prototroph? Heterotroph? Chemotroph? After conjugation between F+ cell and F- cell, what are their genotypes? We have a Hfr strain mated to a mutant F- strain (Arg - Leu- Thr-). We mix the Hfr and the F- strain. We have the following experiment. Plate 1: Arg, Leu = NO GROWTH Plate 2: Leu, Thr NO GROWTH Plate 3: Arg, Thr GROWTH! After five minutes, we only see growth on plate 3. What is the FIRST gene transferred over from Hfr to F-? " |
"If you're given an experiment with a bunch of plates with amino acids on them and E.coli bacteria, MAKE the assumption that the bacteria need everything possible on the plate to survive. This wasn't explicity stated anywhere, but go ahead an assume it to make the problem doable.
If a bacteria can grow on a plate that doesn't have arginine, that bacteria IS arginine+ on their genes. Make the assumption that if a bacteria doesn't have lactose on the plate or lac+ as a gene, this bacteria CAN use glucose. Auxotroph = mutation preveting from growing on minimal media. Reqruiex an auxiliary nutritional supplement. Prototroph = wild type, can grow on minimal media. Heterotroph = grows using energy derived from other organisms. Bacteria are heterotrophs or autotrophs. Chemotroph = derive energy from an inorganic carbon source. After conjugation between F+ cell and F- cell, both have the F+ genotype. We have a Hfr strain mated to a mutant F- strain (Arg - Leu- Thr-). We mix the Hfr and the F- strain. We have the following experiment. Plate 1: Arg, Leu = NO GROWTH Plate 2: Leu, Thr NO GROWTH Plate 3: Arg, Thr GROWTH! After five minutes, we only see growth on plate 3. What is the FIRST gene transferred over from Hfr to F-? It's the Leucine. We look ate plate 3, it has Arg, Thr, but it lacks Leu. The Leu must have come over FIRST! " |
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Are protozoa unicellular? Are protozoa eukaryotes? Are protozoa heterotrophic? Do protozoa reproduce sexually or asexually?
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Protozoa are unicellular eukaryotes that are mostly heterotrophic. Protozoa reproduce sexually and asexually.
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When steroid hormones enter a cell, what do they attach to? Which is faster acting: steroid or peptide hormoens? Which has longer lasting influence: steroid or hormone?
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When steroid hormones enter a cell, they bind to specific receptor proteins that directly modify transcription. Since steroids affect transcription directly, their influence is SLOWER than peptide homrones and their effects are longer lasting.
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