Ppe - Personality Theory Final

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Study that focused on differences between people.

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Trait Approach

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a relatively stable characteristic that causes individuals to behave in certain ways

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Trait

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Theorists associated with Trait Approach

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Charles Darwin and Francis Galton (older), Carl Jung, Raymond B. Cattell, Gordon Allport, Eyesenk, Henry Murray

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Believed: Individual differences are a topic for scientific study. Individual differences can arise through evolutionary processes

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Charles Darwin (Trait Approach)

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Measurement of human abilities-Intelligence testing

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Francis Galton (Trait Approach)

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Focused on Typology, each person fit a certain type the best.

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Carl Jung (Trait approach)

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Used and refined Factor Analysis into 16 personality factors. Collected different types of data, including Q,(self-report/quesitonaire), T (Observational/testing), and L (Info about a person's life)

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Raymond B Cattel (Statistics - Trait Approach)

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Believed each person has unique qualities
Took a hilosophical, humanistic, scholarly approach
Not a fan of Cattell or Behaviorism

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Gordon Allport (Trait - Approach)

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Gordon Allport believed regularities arised because of :

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The individual views many situations and stimuli in the same way
Many of the individual’s behaviors are similar in their meaning. The traits were the internal structure causing this regularity.

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Gordon Allport defined 'Common Traits' as:

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Traits shared by a population
Due to biological heritage and shared culture, there are some common traits
e.g., dominance in American culture

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Gordon Allport defined 'proprium' as:

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The core of personality.

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Method that takes into account each 9person’s uniqueness
Dairies, interviews, Q-sorts, etc.) Compensate for the limitations of nomothetic methods

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Idiographic Methods

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Goals, motives, or styles,
Cardinal dispositions (ruling passions), Central dispositions (fundamental qualities)

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Personal dispositions

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`Internal psychobiological forces that help induce particular behavior patterns

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Motives

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Henry Murray's needs:

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1. Need for Achievement (n ach), 2. Need for Affection (n aff), 3. Need for Afilliation, 4. Need for Power, 5. Need for Exhibition

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What are the Big 5 and what do they predict?

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High on E – politicians/leadership
High on C - do well at work/college
High on A – altruistic, helping others
High on N – can lead to two outcomes
Channel into compulsive success
Reckless behavior or poor coping mechanisms
High on O – creative, intellectual pursuits

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Advantages of Trait Approach:

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Simplifies personality to a small number of basic dimensions
Looks for a deeper consistency underlying behaviors
Good assessment techniques
Allows for comparisons between individuals

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Disadvantages of Trait Approach

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May reach too far trying to capture the individual in a few ways--oversimplification
May label people on the basis of test scores
Sometimes underestimates variability across situations
May underestimate the influence of unconscious motives and early experience

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An area of philosophy concerned with the meaning of human existence
“Being-in-the-world”

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Existentialism

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An area of philosophy that emphasizes the personal worth of the individual and the importance of human values

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Humanism

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Healthy personality exhibits active movement toward self-fulfillment

Our existence comes from our relations with others

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Humanism

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Humanistic psychoanalyst
"Loving is an art.:
Capacity must be developed; cannot exist apart from mature, productive personality
Allows us to overcome our isolation but still maintain our individual integrity
Modern society encourages existential alienation

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Erich Fromm

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Eventually abandoned tenets of psychoanalysis

Came up with 'dialectical humanism'

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Erich Fromm

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Reconciles the biological, driven side of human beings and the pressure of societal structure

Believes people can transcend these forces through free will

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dialectical humanism

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Humanistic psychologist
Emphasized responsibility and said the encouraging it is more important than punishing improper behavior.

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Carl Rogers

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Therapist is supportive and nondirective
Therapist is client-oriented
Therapist provides the client with unconditional positive regard
Therapist provides empathetic understanding of client's internal frame of reference

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Rogerian Psychotherapy (derived from Rogers' personality theory)

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Existential Psychologists see these as core elements to human existence

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Anxiety and Dread

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Existential pyschologist who said Anxiety is triggered by a threat to the core values of existence. We search for meaning in our lives when anxious

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Rollo May

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Existential psychologist who stressed the importance of personal choice and logotherapy, which emphasizes the importance of CHOOSING meaning of life.

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Viktor Frankl

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Trained in behaviorism but rejected it due to the ignoring of creativity, wonder, love

He examined the healthy, the self-actualized

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Abraham Maslow

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Powerful experiences in which people seem to transcend the self, be at one with the world, and feel completely self-fulfilled

Common to people who are self-actualized

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Peak experiences

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Set up the 'hiarchy of needs'

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Abraham Maslow

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Divides needs into two categories: 1. Defeciency needs (or D needs/motives) and 2. Being Level needs.

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Maslow's 'Hiearchy of Needs'

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What maks somebody happy?

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personal traits
optimistic cognitions (i.e., believing things always work out for the best)
internal psychological processes

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Explores the positive forces of life - Hope, Wisdom, Creativity, Spirituality. Then application to mental health.

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Positive Psychology

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Advantages of Humanistic-Existential Approach

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Emphasizes courageous struggle for self-fulfillment
Appreciates the spiritual nature of a person
Based on healthy, well-adjusted individuals
Considers each individual’s experience unique

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Limities of Humanistic-Existential Approach

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May avoid quantification and scientific method
Sometimes insufficiently concerned with reason
Theories are sometimes ambiguous or inconsistent

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Believed personality is tied to social situations. Is the "relatively enduring pattern of recurrent interpsersonal situations". Streesed the importance of peers forming identity, and the social self.

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Harry Stack Sullivan - Interpersonal Theory

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Personality comes from a combination of individual inclinations and the social situation. It consistently changes as a function of relations. We become "different people" in different social situations.

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Harry Stack Sullivan's Interpersonal Theory

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Viewed personality as the study of human lives across time. Combines unconscious motives, environmental pressures, and trait concepts.

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Henry Murray's

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Emphasizes the importance of internal needs a motives, environmental press (the push of a situation), and dynamic system with feedback.

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Murray's Personalogical System

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Typical comibination of needs and presses. Measured with the Thematic Apperceptions Test (TAT). Takes a narrative approach - studies motives though biographies.

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Murray's "Thema"

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A person composes a story to an ambiguos picture (projective test). Ised to discover themes of identity. Very controversail

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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

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What is Mischel's critique of personality?

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He didn't know why it made sense to talk about persoanlity because a person is too complicated and there are not enough correlations when associating it with other things.

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Four personality variables of Michel's Theory

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Competencies (ability and knowledge), Encoding strategies (schemas used to process and encode information), expectancies, plans

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Behavioral signature

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Recurring situation-behavior relationships
Contributes to the apparent consistency of an individual's personality

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Observers tend to attribute the behaviors of others to personality. People overestimate the consistency of their own behavior. HOwever, people are generally good judges of personality.

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Implicit Personality Theory

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Tendency to judge an entity in isolation, disregarding background influences
In social situations this person acts independently of the actions of others

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Field Independence

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Tendency to judge an entity in its context, attending to background influences
In social situations this person conforms

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Field Dependence

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Less sensitive to reactions and expectations of others
Show more consistent behaviors across situations

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Low self monitors

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More sensitive to the social influences that vary across situations
More difficult to see personality effects

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High self-monitors

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The close comprehensive, systematic, objective, sustained study of individuals over significant portions of the life span

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Longitudinal Study

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Advantages to the Person-Situation Approach

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Emphasizes interpersonal influences
Can draw on the best aspects of other approaches
Understands that we are different selves in different situations
Often studies personality across time

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Difficult to define situations
May overlook biological influences
Extreme positions can fail to take into account the complexity of the relationship between personality, behavior, and the situation

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Limits to the Person-Situation Approach

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Common assessment technique of Person-Situation Approach

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Observation and empirical testing of cross-situational consistency, classifying situations, self-report tests, projective tests, biographical study, longitudinal study

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Differences in traits arise from emotional responses to differences in the physical structure of boys and girls. I.e. castration anxiety, and penis envy.

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The Psychoanalyctic Approach to Gender Differences

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Erik Erikson - males are tied to outward-extending genitalia, so they prefer action, exploring, aggressive, pragmatic. Females are tied to internal genitalia - nurturance, gentleness, peacefulness.

Ken Horney - men envy fmale ability to bear children. Contributes to male inferiority. Women envy men's oppurtunites, not penises.

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Neo-Analyctic Approach to Gender Differences

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Carl Jung's three types of gender identity. (Neo-Analyctic)

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Anima - female
Animus - masculine inner personality
Androgyny. All incorporates yin and yang.

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Contemporary object-relations approach. Boys and girls have imitial primary indentification wiht the mother. Development of appropriate gender only requires boys to turn away from mother.

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Nancy Chodorow theory of Neo-Analytic Approach

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Successful reproduction requires different sexual behaviors for men and women. Different personality charcteristics would be adaptive for different strategies.

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Biological/Evolutionary Approach

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Gender typed personality characterisitcs are attained through reinforcement, conditioning, shaping, modeling. Parents, peers, school, the mdia all partcipate in this training. Gender differences changeable.

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Behaviorist/Learning Approach

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Culture and gender-role socialization provide us with gender schemas, which are mental structures that delineate our understandings of the abilities of men and women. The schemas act as cognitive filters.

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The Cognitive Approach

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Masculinity and femininity as independent traits (Sandra Bem). Emotionality.

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The Trait Approach

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Maslow's self-actualized person transcends traditional conceptions of male and female behavior. Empathetic and open - feminine traits. Creative and autonomous - masculine trraits. Most willing to assumine psychological equality.

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The Humanistic Approach

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Social behaviors that differ between the sexes are embedded in social roles (including gender roles)..

The social roles influence the behaviors exhibited

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Social Roles Approach

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Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale

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Thrill and Adventure Seeking
Experience Seeking
Disinhibition
Boredom Susceptibility
Related to speeding and reckless driving

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Psychobiological need for stimulation
Due in part to internal arousal deficit
Derived from Eysenck’s theory of temperament

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Farley’s Type T theory (“Thrill)

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the predisposition of the body to a disease or disorder

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Diathesis

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Certain people respond to stressful life events by entering the ________. Neuroticisms and negative mood increase.

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Sick Role

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What is the 'Human Termites' study?

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A longitudinal study by Lewis Terman who followed high functioning and intelligent adults throughout their lives. It provided isnight into which aspects of personality are related to longeveity.

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The conclusion of the Human Termites test?

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NO link beween cocialbility and longevity. High sociability does not always lead ot better social ties. Extroverts higher risk to drug abuse. Concientious children live longer than parents. Cheerful children died sooner.

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What types of people stay well?

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Self Healing Personalities - Control (does not feel powerless), Commitment (fell commited to someting meaningful), Challenge - Respond to life with escitement and energy.

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2 types of self-healing personalities

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1) The Active Helahty personality - ougoing, spontaneous types
2) The relaxed healthy personality.

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Characteristics associated with the self-actualization are related to the self-healing personality

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Growth Orientation

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Positive emotions broaden possible actions. Allows greater social resources

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Broaden-and-build model

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Theory of how people stay healthy.

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Aaron Antonovsky's salutogenesis.

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Belief that the world is understandable and meaninful is central to health. Associated with life.

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Sense of Coherence

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Repressed conflicts in the unconscious can show themselves in medical symptoms. This idea was the basis for the development of psychosomatic medicine

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Psychoanalytic Implications for Health

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Child rearing practices and resulting degrees of attatchments and securities direct children toward healthy patterns or unhealthy patterns.

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Non-Analytic/Ego Implications for Health

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A person with stress or unhealthy habits like alchoholism is seen as having a disease; treatment usually therefore involves administration of pharmaceuticals that affect hormones or neurotransmitters

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Biological Implications for Health

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Healthy and unhealthy habits are learned through conditioning reinforcement; health promotion involves changing the reward contingencies

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Behaviorist Implications for Health

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As a function of how people process information, they come to undrstand how their behavior affects their health, and how to best maintain health

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Cognitive Implications for Health

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Certain traits such as conscientiousness are seen as healthy whereas other traits such as impulsivity, cynicsm, and sensation-seeking can prove unhealthy

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Trait and Skill Implications for Health

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Self-actualization, personal growth, and sense of coherence are related to self-healting. Good, altruistic social relations are integral to health.

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Humanistic-Existential Implications for HEalth

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Health is optimized when the individual achieves a good match between self and enviornment, thus maximizing homeostasis.

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Interactionist Implications for Health