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116 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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A consistent set of characteristics that people display over time and across situations, and that distinguishes individuals from each other.
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Personality
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Scientific Method
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Observe >> Hypothesis >> Test >> Observe >> Revise >> Repeat >>
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“Top-down” reasoning.
From the general to the specific |
Deductive Reasoning
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“Bottom-up” reasoning
From the specific to the general |
Inductive Reasoning
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What makes a good theory?
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*Comprehensive - Will explain various phenomena
*Parsimonious - Explains things concisely *Falsifiable -Testable Can be proven incorrect *Productive- Leads to new predictions |
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One of the places to first explore the nature of the individual
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Theater - Greek and Roman masks, basic archetypal characters.
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Theophrastus
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Character sketches
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Most direct influence to modern personality psychology
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Evolutionary Biology
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individual characteristics that enabled an organism to pass on genes to offspring become more prevalent in the population over generations”
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Evolution
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Key contribution of Darwinian evolution
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*Freed thinking at the time from assumptions of divine control
*People are subject to laws of nature Thus scientists began to study human behavior systematically |
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first large scale use of psychological testing
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WWII - Used to assign people to units appropriate to their individual profiles and weed out “imbeciles”
These types of questionnaires contributed to development of modern personality and intelligence tests |
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Began to take shape in 1930’s
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Modern Theory
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Modern Theory influenced by the work of
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Gordon Allport
Kurt Lewin Henry Murray |
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Trained in philosophy and the classics
Defined personality as “the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment” |
Gordon Allport
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Came out of the Gestalt tradition
“the whole is greater than the sum of its parts” Looked for systems underlying observable behavior Emphasized the importance of situational and conditional forces on the individual |
Kurt Lewis
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Attempted to integrate clinical issues
Defined personality as “the branch of psychology which principally concerns itself with the study of human lives and the factors which influence their course, [and] individual differences |
Henry Murry
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Modern View of Personality Theory
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Emphasis on the human as a whole
Each person is unique Individual responses are determined by related forces operating at a given moment |
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Culture is heavily _______, which....
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influential, emphasizes the need to study multiple contexts
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In measuring personality, assesments can either be _______ or ___.
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objective or subjective
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Not dependent on individual making assessment (weight, MC test score)
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Objective assessment.
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Relies on interpretation by individual making assessment (assessing art)
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Subjective assessment
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How do we know what makes a good assessment?
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Reliability, Validity, Free from bias,
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Consistency of scores over time
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Reliability
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: variations caused by irrelevant chance fluctuations
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error variance
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Ideally a measure will be low in _____, and therefore _______.
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error variance, highly reliable
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How can we determine whether a personality test is reliable?
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Internal consistency reliability
Test-retest reliability |
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Degree of consistency between two subparts or equivalent parts of a test. Internally consistent if the scores on each subpart are highly correlated.
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Internal Consistency Reliability
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Average of all the possible split half correlation coefficients
Statistically a function of item number and their degree of correlation Should be about a .80 |
Internal Consistency Reliability
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Degree of consistency on different test taking occasions – temporal stability
The scores from each occasion should be highly correlated |
Test-Retest Reliability
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Does a test truly measure the theoretical construct?
No one technique to establish this... |
Construct validity
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extent the measure is related to what is should be related to
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Convergent validity
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Extent the measure is NOT related to what is should not be related to
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Discriminant validity
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Extent to which a measure predicts a specified outcome criterion (ex: SATs and GPA)
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Criterion-related validation
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Extent to which a test measures the domain it is supposed to
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Content Validity
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Response set biases
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1. Acquiescence response sets
2. Social desirability response sets |
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Variety of different methods used to approach measuring personality
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Personality Measures
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Personality measures:
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Self-Report Tests
Q-sort Tests Ratings/judgments Biological measures Behavioral observation Interviews Projective Tests Demographics and Lifestyle |
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Most common in all of psychology
Easy to administer Inexpensive Objective |
Self Report
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Alternative type of self-report
Person given stack of cards with characteristics, then asked to sort into piles based on a dimension |
Q-Sort
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Only valid when assessing personality characteristics/dimensions that are observable
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Rating and Judgmenet of Others
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Franz Joseph Gall
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Studied phrenology
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Participants record behavior when paged by experimenter at various intervals
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sampling method of assessment
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Assumes behavior is valid predictor of future behavior
And generally proves true |
Behavioural Observation
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Most common to psychology interview is ________.
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psychotherapeutic interview
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Will be variable from person to person and can be subjective
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Unstructured Interview
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Systematic interview where the interviewer follows specific plan of questions
Increase validity |
Structured Interview
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Attempt to measure personality through use of a relatively unstructured stimulus, task, or situation
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Projective Tests
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Most Famous Projective Tests
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Rorsharch Test
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Biggest problem with Projective Tests:
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Scoring is based on examiner’s personal interpretation
Not reliable Not found to be highly valid either But could be useful to gain clinical insights |
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In depth analysis of a single individual
Great for gathering ideas and hypotheses But need further systematic study to become scientific |
Case study design.
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Assesses the association between two or more variables
Does not tell us about causal direction “Correlation does not equal causation” |
Correlation Studies
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Allows valid causal inferences
Involves random assignment of participants to either a treatment group or control group Groups receive different levels of an IV and are then compared on the DV. Conclusion are superior to case or correlation study In personality research random assignment can be challenging Results in mostly quasi-experimental studies |
Experimental Study
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Ego: sense of self
Importance on interaction/conflict with others |
Neo-Analytic Approach
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Swiss physician
Became interested in psychiatry while studying. Corresponded with Freud. Freud saw him as his heir. |
Carl Jung
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Structure of personality - (JUNG)
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Psyche – essence of the mind; total personality
Complex network on interacting systems striving toward harmony |
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undifferentiated life energy (JUNG)
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Libido
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3 Main Systems (JUNG)
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Conscious Ego
Personal Unconscious Collective Unconscious |
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JUNG'S Conscience Ego
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Similar to Freud’s – part of mind that is conscious
Embodies sense of self/feelings of identity Develops around age 4 |
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The Personal Unconscious (JUNG)
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Perceptions, thoughts, feelings that are not conscious but which can be retrieved
Things unimportant at the moment Information that is repressed Unique to each individual |
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A deeper level of unconsciousness that is transpersonal
Shared and common across all people |
The Collective Unconscious
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No one is purely male or female
Anima: female element of a man Animus: the male element of a woman |
Animus and Anima
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Outward appearance vs. inner self
Persona: socially acceptable front presented to others Shadow: dark socially unacceptable side of personality |
Persona and Shadow
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Embodies generativity and fertility
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Mother
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Some of the Best Known Archaetypes
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Animus and Anima
Persona and Shadow Mother Hero and Demon |
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Functions of the mind
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1. Rational
2. Irrational |
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Viennese physician
Practicing neurologist and psychiatrist |
Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
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Invited to join discussion groups with Freud
Groups grew into the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society |
Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
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Adler’s Theory
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Individual Psychology
Unique motivations of people Person’s perceived niche in society Emphasis on human culture and society Concern over social conditions Adler advocated for children’s rights |
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The desire to be effective and competent
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Core of personality: striving for superiority
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Exaggerated feelings of incompetence
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Inferiority complex
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Exaggerated arrogance developed to overcome feelings of inferiority
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Superiority complex
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Body attempts to make up for physical weakness
Important motivators for people’s life choices |
Organ inferiority
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Reaction to perceived helplessness of inferiority
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Aggression drive
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Individuals attempt to be autonomous
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Masculine protest
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Everyone must address 3 social issues
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Occupational Tasks
Societal Tasks Love Tasks |
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Hippocrates and Galen discussed the notion that personality influenced by amount of 4 humors
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Yellow bile - choleric temperament
Irritable, low social interest, high activity level Blood - sanguine temperament Cheerful, high social interest, high activity level Black bile - melancholic temperament Brooding, very low social interest, low activity level Phlegm - phlegmatic temperament Lethargic, low social interest, low activity level |
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Adler’s Personality Typology
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Ruling-Dominant
Getting-Learning Avoiding Socially Useful |
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Trained as a medical doctor and psychoanalyst at University of Berlin
Medical school had just began to admit women Focused on social world/social motivations She considered theory within Freudian framework Differences led to her resignation from New York Psychoanalytic Institute |
Karen Horney (1885-1952)
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Karen Homey's Important Contributions
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Importance of family environment
Stressed impact of culture and society Addressed weaknesses concerning gender differences |
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Attended art school
Faculty member in Vienna Met Anna Freud Interest in psychoanalysis Underwent psychoanalytic training Emigrated to America around 1933 |
Erik Erikson
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Personality or “identity” develops into adulthood
Identity Formation Argued for lifelong process Developed theory of personality development from a life-span perspective |
Erikson's Theory of Identity
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Erikson’s Stage Theory
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Ego Crisis to be resolved at each stage
8 Stages: Trust vs Mistrust Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt Initiative vs Guilt Industry vs Inferiority Identity vs Role Confusion Intimacy vs Isolation Generativity vs Stagnation Ego Integrity vs Despair |
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First ego crisis (~same period as Oral stage)
Infants needs met by environment trust and hope Disruptions mistrust and abandonment Crisis unresolved Difficulty establishing trust throughout life |
Trust versus Mistrust (0-1year)
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Second ego crisis (~same period as Anal stage)
Learning control over body Firm but not harsh parenting make independent decisions Overly controlling/punitive feel ashamed, futility, self-doubt |
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (1-3 years)
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Third ego crisis (~same period as Phallic stage)
Successful learn to plan and carry out actions Sense of direction and purpose Unsuccessful feel constrained and guilt; una pursue Crisis unresolved Low self-confidence, cannot take initiative/make |
Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years)
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Fourth ego crisis (~same time as latency period)
Task completion – academic tasks Successful problem solve; pride in accomplishment Unsuccessful feel inferior, incompetent |
Industry vs. Inferiority
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Fifth ego crisis (~same period as Genital stage)
Identity crisis: uncertainty about abilities, goals, associations Tries to integrate identities Who they are, what they want to become Successful clear multifaceted sense of self Unsuccessful perpetual confusion about future or adult roles |
Identity versus Role Confusion (Adolescence)
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Sixth ego crisis
Learning to interact deeply with others and seek companionship Successful develop deep and intimate relationships – love Unsuccessful social isolation and loneliness |
Intimacy versus Isolation (Young Adulthood)
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Seventh ego crisis
Giving of self; looking to future generations Successful children; community service Unsuccessful feeling life is worthless/boring |
Generativity versus Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)
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Eighth ego crisis
Reflection on life experiences Successful find meaning and sense that life was worthwhile Unsuccessful sense of despair and fear of death |
Ego Integrity versus Despair (Old Age)
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Importance of positive/goal-oriented nature of humanity
Incorporates impact of society, culture, and interpersonal interaction on personality Focus includes non-clinical population Expands personality development through adulthood |
Advantages of Neo-analytic/ego aspects of personality
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Shifted away from biology
Still very difficult to test empirically Concepts heavily philosophical Concepts too abstract and/or vague |
Limitations of Neo-analytic/ego aspects of personality
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John Locke – Tabula Rasa
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Nurture
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4 basic aspects of Temperament
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Activity
Emotionality Sociability Impulsivity |
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Nervous System temperament
Used factor analysis to look at personality traits |
Eysenck
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All traits can be broken down into two dimensions:
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Neuroticism
Extraversion-Introverson |
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Sensitivity of sympathetic nervous system
Fight or flight response - (Eysenck’s Temperament) |
Neuroticism
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Importance of genetically passed on characteristics
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Natural Selection - Darwin
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Attempt to understand evolutionary process that led to the development of the human mind.
Very difficult to pinpoint precise causes |
Evolutionary personality theory
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Defect chromosome 15
Happy, easily excitable, hyperactivity |
Angelman Syndrome
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Missing 2 dozen genes on chromosome 7
Excessively social, unguarded |
Williams Syndrome
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Studied family trees
Noticed that eminence ran in families Recognized the impact of family status Suggested studying the adopted Including adopted twins Began eugenics movement |
Sir Francis Galton
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Why study twins?
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One of the best ways to tease out genes versus environment
Shared variance Non-shared variance |
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For any given trait, we have a genetic potential/predisposition
Environment stretches what is built in Ex: Schizophrenia and homosexuality Concordance rate in MZ 50% Cannot be a direct genetic cause Environment impacts the rest |
Stern’s Rubberband Hypothesis
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Cat experiment
Important work in sensation Implications for human development |
Hubel and Weisel
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Causes Mood swings and mental disturbances
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Mercury poisoning
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Can lead to deviant, antisocial behavior
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Lead poisoning
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Manganese poisoning
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Compulsive fighting
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Brain deterioration – right frontal lobe
Changes in sense of self Change in beliefs, values, and preferences |
Pick’s disease
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Changes depending on area of the brain
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Stroke
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Railroad construction worker
Accident caused severe damage to prefrontal cortex of the brain Survived but suffered drastic personality change Before accident: responsible, hard working After: child-like behavior, profane, unacceptable behavior, loss of social inhibition, “no longer Gage” |
Phineas Gage
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Idea that body type relates to personality
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Somatotypes
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Muscular, large-boned and athletic types
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Mesomorph
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Slender, book-worm type
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Ectomorph
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Overweight, jolly and good-natured type
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Endomorph
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1st and 5th grade
Given “The Harvard Test” Measures “late bloomers” Gave teacher list of children’s names Randomly selected Tested again at end of the school year Students on the list showed largest gains achieved Effect bigger in 1st grade 5th graders have sense of self and reputation |
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968)
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