Pp 97

Front 1

What is learning responsible for?

Back 1

Many of the similarities and differences in human behavior

Front 2

What is learning?

Back 2

Relatively permanent changes in relationships between behavior and environmental stimuli due to certain types of experience

Front 3

What are the 3 criteria for changes of learning?

Back 3

1) Changes must be long lasting
2) Changes are in relationships between behavior and stimuli
3) Changes result from only certain types of experiences, not just any experience

Front 4

What are 2 reasons that learning has been of interest to psychologists?

Back 4

1) It is a powerful determinant of behavior
2) Understanding learning allows for development of an effective behavior-change technology

Front 5

What was Ivan Pavlov studying when he discovered conditional reflexes?

Back 5

the physiology of digestion/salivary reflex

Front 6

Reflex

Back 6

automatic, stereotyped responses to specific stimuli

Front 7

What did Pavlov first try to explain the dogs behavior with?

Back 7

The thoughts, wishes, and memories of the animal

Front 8

Why was the work of Pavlov significant (4 things)?

Back 8

1) It relied on strict experimentation using objective variables
2) It shifted the search for causes of behavior from inside the organism to observable events in the environment
3) It used nonhuman objects
4) Demonstrated classical conditioning

Front 9

What two types of reflexes did Pavlov differentiate?

Back 9

1) Unconditional
2) COnditional (new term for psychic secretions)

Front 10

Unconditional reflexes

Back 10

occurrence not dependent on experience during the animal's lifetime;

the relationship between a US and UR

Front 11

Conditional reflexes

Back 11

occurrence depends critically on specific variables; behavior is not present at birth;

depends on learning;
is less permanent

Front 12

Antecedent stimulus

Back 12

the name of a stimulus that directly precedes the response (is a proximate environmental cause)

Front 13

Unconditional stimulus (US)

Back 13

any stimulus that elicits a response in the absence of a special learning history

Front 14

Unconditional response (UR)

Back 14

response elicited by an unconditional stimulus

Front 15

Habituation

Back 15

the diminished capacity of an unconditional stimulus to elicit an unconditional response as a result of repeated exposures to that stimulus

Front 16

What are six characteristics of habituation?

Back 16

1) General phenomenon evident across many reflexes
2) Beneficial because it keeps organism from wasting energy and time
3) May be considered a form of learning, although changes are not as permanent
4) Does not involve simple fatigue or satiation
5) Is stimulus-specific
6) Does not involve general waning of responsiveness

Front 17

What does classical conditioning provide in behavior beyond that provided by unconditional reflexes?

Back 17

Flexibility;

under different conditions, the same stimuli may initiate quite different reflex actions, or the same reactions may be initiated by different stimuli

Front 18

Stimulus-stimulus pairing

Back 18

an arrangement in which some other stimulus (CS) reliably and more or less immediately precedes an unconditioned stimulus;

after pairing, the CS comes to reliably elicit a response (CR) that is similar to that elicited by the US

Front 19

Conditional stimulus

Back 19

prior to being paired with the unconditional stimulus, the CS is a neutral stimulus

Front 20

Neutral stimulus (NS)

Back 20

does not elicit a response similar to that elicited by the unconditional stimulus, although it may control other responses

Front 21

Conditional response (CR)

Back 21

the response elicted by the CS

Front 22

When has classical conditioning occurred?

Back 22

When a CS comes to elicit a CR reliably

Front 23

What was the CS, US, CR, and UR in Pavlov's experiment?

Back 23

CS: tone
US: meat powder
CR: salivation elicited by tone
UR: salivation elicited by meat powder

Front 24

What were the steps in Pavlov's experiment?

Back 24

1) Present the tone alone to make sure it is neutral
2) Present the tone just before the food is presented
3) After several pairings, the tone is presented alone and elicits salivation

Front 25

Conditional reflex

Back 25

a learned relationship in which a conditional stimulus comes through classical conditioning to elicit a conditional response

Front 26

What are the three steps to demonstrate classical conditioning

Back 26

1) The stimulus to be established as a CS is presented several times to demonstrate that it is a neutral stimulus prior to being paired with the US
2) The NS is paired repeatedly with the US, which changes the NS into a CS
3) The CS is presented alone and if it elicits the CR, classical conditioning has occurred

Front 27

Higher-order conditioning / second-order conditioning

Back 27

after an NS has been established as a CS, it can be paired with other neutral stimuli to make them into conditional stimuli

Front 28

What are conditional and unconditional responses known collectively as?

Back 28

Respondent behaviors

Front 29

What four dimensions are respondent behaviors measured along?

Back 29

1) Magnitude
2) Latency
3) Percent occurrence
4) Duration

Front 30

Magnitude

Back 30

amount or force of a response

Front 31

Latency

Back 31

time elapsed between the onset of some stimulus and the occurence of a response

Front 32

Percent occurrence

Back 32

relative number of CS presentations that elicit the CR

Front 33

Duration

Back 33

the time elapsed from the onset to the offset of the response

Front 34

What does the measure used depend upon?

Back 34

The nature of the response

Front 35

What type of muscles do respondent behaviors usually involve?

Back 35

Smooth muscles or glands

Front 36

What must one also be aware of when determining whether behavior is respondent?

Back 36

The organism's learning history and the stimuli that elicit the behavior

Front 37

Delayed conditioning

Back 37

the CS begins before the US and ends either when the US begins or when the US ends

Front 38

Trace conditioning

Back 38

A measurable period of time (called the trace interval) elapses between the end of the CS and the onset of the US;

effective when the trace interval is short

Front 39

Simultaneous conditioning

Back 39

when the CS and US occur at the same time

NOT effective in classical

Front 40

Backward conditioning

Back 40

When the CS occurs after the US

NOT effective in classical

Front 41

What is a necessary condition for classical conditioning?

Back 41

That the CS and the US are correlated in time, so that the probability of the US occurring is greatest after the CS occurs

Front 42

Classical extinction

Back 42

cessation of responding due to presentation of a CS not paired with a US;

serves an organism by preventing it from responding needlessly

Front 43

Spontaneous recovery

Back 43

If a period of time passes from the end of one series of extinction trials to the beginning of another series, the CS will once again elicit the CR, although the reflex will not be as strong

Front 44

Stimulus generalization

Back 44

Stimuli that are physically similar to a CS may elicit the same CR, even though they have never been paired with the US

Front 45

Wasp example

Back 45

Child stung by wasp
-US: sting
-UR: pain/activation response
-CS: the sight and sound of the wasp
-CR: fear of wasps

The child will also be afraid of wasp-like insects

Front 46

What determines the likelihood that an untrained stimulus will elicit a response similar to the conditional response?

Back 46

How similar it is to the conditional stimulus (CS)

Front 47

How can stimulus generalization be reduced?

Back 47

Classical discrimination training

Front 48

Classical discrimination training

Back 48

a CS is repeatedly paired with a US, whereas another stimulus (that is physically different from the CS along a specifiable dimension) is repeatedly presented without being paired with the US

Front 49

Dog tone example

Back 49

Dog receives food after a high frequency tone, but not after a low frequency tone. Eventually the low frequency tone will not elicit salivation

Front 50

What are two reasons that unconditional reflexes are important?

Back 50

1) They minimize adverse effects of environmental variables
2) They keep our bodies within working limits

Front 51

What are unconditional reflexes a result of?

Back 51

Ultimate phylogenetic causation (evolution)

Front 52

What are conditional reflexes a result of?

Back 52

Ultimate ontogenetic causation (learning)

Front 53

What are three ways that Taste aversion learning differs from conventional classical conditioning?

Back 53

1) Learning typically occurs after only one pairing of the CS and the US
2) The effective interval between the CS and the US can be minutes or hours
3) Involves operant as well as classical conditioning (avoidance of the food is operant)

Front 54

What was the rat radiation example?

Back 54

Rats who preferred drinking sugar water over tap were given sugar water and then exposed to gamma radiation, which caused nausea. Later, the rats drank tap water over sugar water

Front 55

What can happen with cancer patients?

Back 55

They can develop conditioned taste aversion to foods eaten prior to radiation therapy;

some even become nauseous when entering the hospital setting where they received treatment

Front 56

How was drug-induced immunosuppression classically conditioned in rats?

Back 56

Rats in the experimental group drank a sugar solution (CS) and were then injected with a drug (US) that produced immunosuppression (UR).
Rats in the control group were injected (US) without sugar water.
Later they were exposed to germs and then given sugar water. The rats in the experimental group had a lower immune function.

Front 57

How was immune function raised in mice?

Back 57

Skin grafts (US) automatically led to increased production of T-Cells (UR).
After the mice had grafts, exposures to surgical procedures associated with skin grafts (CS), but with no skin actually grafted, still raised T-cell production (CR)

Front 58

How can classical conditioning be used to help combat immunosuppression?

Back 58

Women who will receive chemo could be exposed to the hospital setting several times before starting treatment in order to establish latent inhibition / CS-preexposure effect

Front 59

Latent inhibition / CS-preexposure effect

Back 59

The CS is repeatedly presented before it is paired with a US;

each presentation of the CS alone in a sense "predicts" the absence of the US

Front 60

How does the latent inhibition help chemo patients?

Back 60

By being exposed to the hospital setting (CS) without the treatment (US), it will take longer for the treatment area to become a CS for nausea or conditioned immunosuppression

Front 61

How was the courtship of quails conditioned?

Back 61

A buzzer (CS) was sounded for 10 seconds, after which a female bird (US) was placed in the male's cage.
The female was removed after copulation or after 1 min from the start of the buzzer (CS);
After pairings, the males began to display courtship behavior (CR) at the sound of a buzzer (CS)

Front 62

How were human males conditioned to be aroused at the sight of boots?

Back 62

They were shown slides of boots (CS) right before being shown slides of attractive nude women (US);
after pairings, the men became aroused at the sight of the boots

Front 63

What does classical conditioning play a role in developing?

Back 63

Sexual fetishes

Front 64

Tolerance

Back 64

the effects of a drug diminish as a result of repeated exposure to that drug;

greater tolerance is observed under conditions in which the drug has regularly been administered in the past

Front 65

What was the experiment with three groups of rat to show effects of environment on tolerance?

Back 65

The experimental groups were given heroin and dextrose every other day. On the final day, the rats in one of the exp groups was given a larger dose in an environment where they had received smaller doses before; the other exp group was given heroin in an environment in which dextrose had been given in the past.

The study showed that the rats given the heroin where they had been given dextrose had a higher mortality rate because of the novel environment (The CS of the old environment wasn't there to trigger the CR of tolerance)

Front 66

Siegel's tolerance model

Back 66

Stimuli paired with drug administration become CSs that evoke CRs that are OPPOSITE of the URs elicited by the US;

The CRs counteract the URs elicited by the drug

Front 67

What is an example of Siegel's model?

Back 67

Heroin (US) produces euphoria (UR). The environmental stimuli (CS) produce dysphoria (CR); the more heroin administered in the setting, the greater the dysphoria, and the more heroin needed to get the original feeling of euphoria

Front 68

When are drug overdoses most likely?

Back 68

When the drug is administered under unusual circumstances

Front 69

How do some psychologists still explain classical conditioning?

Back 69

By speaking about mental events;

that the dogs "associated" or "expected" the food when they heard the tone

Front 70

What are these explanations not?

Back 70

Parsimonious or scientifically adequate

Front 71

What are more parsimonious and sientifically adequate explanations in terms of?

Back 71

Proximate and ultimate variables

Front 72

Why is a US a proximate environmental cause?

Back 72

Because of the evolutionary history of the species; or ultimate phylogenetic causation

Front 73

Why is a CS a proximate environmental cause?

Back 73

Because of classical conditioning, or ultimate ontogenetic causation

Front 74

What two things are fundamental to fully understanding behavior?

Back 74

Understanding classical conditioning and understanding operant conditioning