Population/community Ecology Exam 3

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aposematic

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warning coloration, indicating to a predator that this prey is poisonous or highly defended against attack

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coevolution

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mutual evolutionary influence between two species; each party in a coevolutionary relationship exerts selective pressures on the other, thereby affecting each other's evolution

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environmental heterogeneity

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variation in space in any environmental parameter such as soil pH or tree cover

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functional response

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the change in the intake rate of a predator in relation to the density of its prey species

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generalist predators

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predators that eat a great variety of prey species

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handling time

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time utilized by a predator to consume any individual prey item

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numerical response

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the change in the numbers or density of a predator in relation to changes in the density of its prey species

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optimal foraging theory

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detailed model of how animals should forage to maximize their fitness

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prey isocline

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the contour line of densities of predator and prey at which the prey are in equilibrium; the impact of a predator exactly balances the prey's rate of population growth, so the prey population growth rate is zero

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safe sites

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for animals, sites where prey individuals are able to avoid predation; for plants, sites where seeds can germinate and plants can grow

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aspects of predator-prey dynamics

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1.) multiple prey species being eaten by multiple predator species
2.) refuges for the prey
3.) spatial heterogeneity in habitat suitability for both the predator and prey
4.) evolutionary changes in predator and prey characteristics

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exploitation

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two predators share common prey species, may interact indirectly

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apparent competition

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competition between prey causes predator populations to fluctuate

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significance of predation

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1.) may restrict distribution or reduce abundance of the prey
2.) another major type of interaction that can influence the organization of communities
3.) major selective force

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Allee effect

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region of low population density in which rates of population change are negative and the population heads to extinction

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Possible responses in predator-prey interactions

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1.) functional- number of prey eaten changes
2.) numerical- density of predators increases by reproduction
3.) aggregative- predators move into/ concentrate in certain areas
4.) developmental- predators eat more/fewer prey as predators grow toward maturity

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compartment model

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type of box-arrow model of diseases in which each compartment contains a part of the system that can be measured and the compartments are linked by flows between them; each compartment typically has an input from some compartments and an output to other compartments

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disease

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interaction in which a disease organism lives on or within a host plant or animal, to the benefit of the disease agent and the detriment of the host; typically bacteria or viruses, but can be pathogenic fungi or prions (protein bodies)

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macroparasites

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large multicellular organisms, typically arthropods or helminths, which do not multiply within their definitive hosts but instead produce transmission stages (eggs and larvae) that pass into the external environment

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microparasites

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small pathogenic organisms, typically protozoa, fungi, bacteria, or viruses, that can cause disease

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parasite

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an organism that grows, feeds, or is sheltered on or in a different organism while having a negative impact on the host

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Red Queen Hypothesis

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the coevolution of parasites and their hosts, or predators and their prey, in which improvements in one of the species is countered by evolutionary improvements in the partner species, so that an evolutionary arms race occurs but neither species gains an advantage in the interaction

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sublethal effects

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any pathogenic effects that reduce the wellbeing of an individual without causing death

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virulence

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the degree or ability of a pathogenic organism to cause disease; often measured by the host death rate

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total response

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percentage of prey organisms eaten per unity time by the entire population of predators as prey density changes; if total response increases with increasing prey density, predators limit prey populations; if total response decreases with increasing prey density, predators won't limit prey

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grazing facilitation

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the process of one herbivore creating attractive feeding conditions for another herbivore so there is a benefit provided to the second herbivore

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inducible defenses

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plant defense methods that are called into action once herbivore attract occurs and are nearly absent during periods of no herbivory

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mutualism

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a relationship between two organisms of different species that benefits both and harms neither

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mycorrhizae

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a mutually beneficial association of a fungus and the roots of a plant in which the plant's mineral absorption is enhanced and the fungus obtains nutrients from the plant

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optimal defense hypothesis

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the idea that plants allocate defenses against herbivores in a manner that maximizes individual plant fitness, and that defenses are costly to produce

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overcompensation hypothesis

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the idea that a small amount of grazing will increase plant growth and fitness rather than cause harm to the plant

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plant stress hypothesis

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the idea that herbivores prefer to attack stressed plants, which produce leaves that are higher in nitrogen

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plant vigor hypothesis

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the idea that herbivores prefer to attack fast-growing, vigorous plants rather than slow-growing, stresses plants

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resource availability hypothesis

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theory of plant defense that predicts higher plant growth rates will result in less investment in defensive chemical and structure

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secondary plant substances

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chemicals produced by plants that are not directly involved in the primary metabolic pathways and whose main function is to repel herbivores, byproducts of the primary metabolic pathways

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plant apparency theory

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type of defenses the plant uses depends on how easily a herbivore can find the plant

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interactive herbivore system

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vegetation affects herbivore population and the herbivores influence the growth and subsequent fate of vegetation

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noninteractive herbivore systems

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no relationship between herbivore population density and the subsequent condition of the vegetation, no feedback

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irruption

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increase and subsequent collapse in densities

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climatic climax

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the final, equilibrium vegetation for a site that is dictated by climate and toward which all successions are proceeding, according to Clements

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climax-pattern hypothesis

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the view that climax communities grade into one another and form a continuum of climax types that vary gradually along environmental gradients

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facilitation model

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the classic view that succession proceeds via one species helping the next species in the sequence to establish; increases nutrients

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inhibition model

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succession proceeds via one species trying to stop the next species in the sequence from establishing; dying and replaced, allelopathy

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monoclimax hypothesis

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the classic view of Clements that all vegetation in a region converges ultimately to a singe climax plant community

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polyclimax hypothesis

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view of Whittaker that there are several different climax vegetation communities in a region govern by many environmental factors

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primary succession

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succession occurring on a landscape that has no biological legacy

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secondary succession

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succession occurring on a landscape that has a biological legacy in the form of seeds, roots, and some live plants

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succession

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the universal process of directional change in vegetation during ecological time

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tolerance model

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the view that plants in a successional sequence do not interact with one another in either a negative or a positive manner; later species may be more competitive

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nitrogen compounds

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1.) alkaloids (nicotine, caffeine, morphine, quinine)
2.) cyanogenic glycosides (stored in vacuoles and produce hydrogen cyanide when released, amygdalin)
3.) glucosinolates (sulforaphane from brassicas [like broccoli])

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terpenoids

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essential oils: peppermint, citronella, limonene, camphor; resins

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phenolics

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tannins, cannabinoids, silymarin (from milk thistle)

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constitutive defenses

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maintained at high levels at all times

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induced defenses

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only produced in response to damage itself

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qualitative chemical defenses

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1.) toxins that usually interfere with metabolism, blocking some specific biochemical reaction
2.) not dosage dependent
3.) present in low concentrations
4.) usually small, water soluble molecules that are rapidly synthesized and are low in cost to the plant
5.) effective against generalists and non-adaptive specialists

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quantitative chemical defenses

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1.) toxins that reduce digestibility
2.) dosage dependent (the more they eat, the less nutrition they get)
3.) present in high concentrations
4.) large molecules that are expensive to produce and maintain and take a long time to make
5.) effective against most herbivores (specialists and generalists)

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early succession

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1.) better dispersal
2.) faster life cycle
3.) smaller
4.) less dependent on mycorrhizal associations
5.) more tolerant of harsh conditions

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late succession

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1.) not as great dispersers
2.) slower growth/ longer life cycle
3.) larger
4.) less tolerant of harsh conditions