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88 Cards in this Set

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Democracy
A system of government in which government is ultimately accountable to the citizens. Although democracy literally means government by the people, in practice it normally means that the people can select and remove those that govern them. Democracy is significant in political science because it is the measuring stick by which governments are measured by the extent to which they display the characteristics of political equality, popular consultation, and a certain degree of majority rule.
Government
The people or organizations that make, enforce, and implement political decisions for a society. A government can take many different forms and operate in many different capacities of a society, but all governments fulfill these roles. Government is important because although other entities in society make decisions; governments make more coercive decisions than other forces in society through their ability to enforce, adjudicate, and communicate their decisions.
Politics
The process of making collective decisions in a community, society, or group through the application of influence and power. Important because essentially; politics is the method by which those who wield power are able to make decisions in a setting in which differing opinions and intentions exist.
Liberalism
The key underlining factor that influences much of liberalism’s general outlook towards political issues is its strong opposition to the application of the power of the state to enforce any conventional moral, religious, or traditional standards of behavior upon the people. Essentially, this ideology holds the rights of the individuals to make their own choices, even if controversial, as superior to the interests of the state. In morality and social policy, this ideology has recently manifested itself in the tendencies for liberals to oppose restrictions on abortion, flag burning, same sex marriage, etc. However, from a socioeconomic standpoint, liberalism sees this superiority of the individual’s rights as being violated by many of the oppressive social problems and corporate greed and power. In the face of this threat, liberals see it as the government’s obligation to step in and exercise its authority to prevent corporations from growing richer and more powerful while the poor get poorer. Additionally, from a fiscal government standpoint, they hold the view that it is the government’s obligation to ensure that they break down socioeconomic barriers to the potential of the underprivileged who are being denied their personal rights on account of the corporate and socioeconomic pressures upon them.
Conservatism
Conversely, conservatives hold that unified and shared acceptance of a basic value system is one of the most important factors in the cohesiveness and prosperity of a society. Fundamental to conservatives is its support for the idea that traditional values strengthen society. Whereas the liberals may see certain issues such as same sex marriage and a woman’s right to choose to have an abortion as critical to defend to prevent the government from becoming involved within the sphere of an individual’s rights, conservatism would view these same issues as hindrance to the preservation of traditional moral values, and thus a large cause of socioeconomic problems. Although liberals feel that it is the predatory practices of big business and socioeconomic blight, conservatives would feel that it is these social problems are the expected outcome of the disillusion of traditional moral values, and it is not poverty that makes crime, drug use, and teenage pregnancies; but rather these things (because they are in opposition to traditional moral correctness) are actually the causes of poverty. Conservatives also seem to tend to encourage the government to allow for big businesses to operate free of many constraints that would hamper the companies, but potentially help some people. This economic view seems to also have roots in the conservative outlook on traditional values, in that those with the best abilities that work the hardest will be the ones that pull themselves up by their bootstraps, a very morally desirable trait.
Types of Government
2. There are essentially two main categories of government; democratic and non-democratic. Democratic governments are governments that use the input of its citizens to choose their own government, either directly or through the majority favor towards a particular representative of themselves. This idea relies heavily upon the idea of political equality, meaning equal opportunity and participation to all people to take place in their government on the same level, regardless of any classifications they may fall into. The concept of political equality is vital because a democracy is only truly a representative of its people if all those people are allowed to participate equally. Individual governments within the category of democratic are differentiated from one another by the degree to which they adhere to the tenants of political equality, popular consultation, and majority rule. Governments that fall within the non-democratic category a subdivided not upon their adherence to certain qualities, but rather, how they operate in relationship to their citizens. Authoritarian systems are governments which seek only to gain complete obedience from their citizens, and thus conduct much of their dealings with and policies towards their people in order to obtain. Conversely, totalitarian systems of government want to indoctrinate all of their citizens into the dominant ideology through these ideologies consuming nearly all public, private, and political affairs.
Functions of Government
1. All forms of government in the world similar functions at their core level. The most important function of a government is their role in the making of rules by which they define what is legal and illegal, as well as what is required of their citizens. This rule making is simply the exercising of authority that they wield, through whatever means, over their people. However, these rules are essentially useless unless they have a means by which to execute these rules. Without the ability to compel its people to adhere and acknowledge its rules, the mandates handed down through rules are useless. Another function is necessary when applying these rules of government to individual citizens. Because of the inability for rules to directly address all people and situations, it is necessary for governments to carry out rule adjudication. Rule adjudication involves the interpretation of broadly defined government rules as they apply to individual citizens and their situations, thus ensuring adherence to government rules and punishment against violating them. For a government to make rules for its people without allowing them to know any of the details about them would be pointless; this makes communication between the government and its citizens is known as political socialization. This communication is necessary for the government to ascertain their feel for the limits of their power, as well as inform the people what is expected of them, as well as what they are prohibited from by way of various government rules. Lastly, a government must also have a means by which to extract resources from its people in the form of material and services, as well as recruits to hold government positions.
Political Socialization
1. Political socialization is the process of shaping and transmitting a political culture. It involves the transfer of political values from one generation to another and usually entails changes over time that lead to gradual transformation of the culture. The agents that facilitate this socialization are overt at times, though they can also be more subtle in their influences of the political values of an individual. The first and most important agent in shaping the political values of a person is their family. Another of the most important of the factors which facilitate political socialization is their education. At an impressionable age, children and young adults are often shaped in their political values by the types of things that are emphasized in the classrooms, such as important civic attributes, and the importance of certain things like voting to Americans. Peer groups are also very important in the process of political socialization, especially during the period of adolescence. The media also plays an ever-increasing role in the formation of a person’s political values over the course of their lives. Something as innocent-seeming as a news broadcast can shape out political values much more than we could possibly ever consciously realize. Simple by the attitude by which a particular story is treated, the manner in which it is told, and selectively choosing which issues to focus upon, many media outlets know have an unprecedented amount of influence upon the political values of a person. The most important media factor in political socialization has unquestionably been the television. This medium has created a homogenization of American culture in that many Americans are now watching and listening and watching the same things as one another, and being indoctrinated within the same political values, creating a subconscious consensus within those who are exposed to it.
Capitalism
Refers to both an economic system and to an ideology. As an economic system, capitalism may be defined by its reliance on economic exchange and private ownership to allocate society’s resources. A capitalist system is one on which profit-seeking behavior, not governmental decision making, determines what happens in the economy. Capitalism is extremely significant because its profit-seeking behavior being able to determine the outcome of the economy allows for an economy that is highly compatible with individualism because in capitalism, the general good is best served when individuals seek their own economic self-interest.
Environmentalism
Ideology that advocates that the issues pertaining to the environment and policies directed towards it are of primary importance, some even believe that these concerns for the physical environment should be placed ahead of the concerns for economic development, poverty, and international relations.
Feminism
Ideology that advocates equal rights for females. Significant because this approach considers the affect any decisions place upon the female gender above other considerations because they believe that females have not been fully appreciated and that masculine qualities have dominated and distorted social and cultural development. In more extreme feminism, there is also the belief that women and men possess different, inborn characteristics based upon our sex, and that the fact that men typically lead their historically dominated positions with traits of competition, extreme individualism, and separatism. Because of these maladaptive prominent traits of the male gender, extreme feminists believe that the world would be much better and equal when women achieve equal status.
Islamic Fundamentalism
A strongly devout minority within the Muslim religion whose members believe in a traditional and literal interpretation of the Koran, the Muslim holy book. They reject many aspects of modern life and reject such Western cultural influences as Hollywood movies, rock music, and immodest dress as corrupt threats to traditional, conservative Islamic values. Some fundamentalist Muslims support the use of violence to advance their cause; others do not. This is very interesting because of the link between both the conservatives’ and the Islamic Fundamentalists’ intense desire to retain their traditional values because they view any new or different values as being immoral and a corrupting influence upon traditional values. It is also interesting because Islamic Fundamentalism possesses the qualities of both of a political ideology and of a religious theology that emphasize a requirement in which citizens are required to live according to traditional Islamic codes.
Socialism
An ideology advocating social equality, public ownership, of industry, and a lesser role for private property. Its core belief that a just society requires purposeful social action, and that actions based solely upon private interests prevent the achievement of a fair society. The most significant aspect of socialism is its secondary goal in striving to counter the divisive forces in society brought about by selfishness in the seeking of private interests.
Political Culture
The pattern of individual attitudes and orientations towards politics among members of a political system. One of the most vital aspects for studying political science because it allows us to study more than just the mechanism by which government acts. It expands to attempt to describe and explain why a people have the type of government that they do and their relationship with, and attitudes towards it.
Political Culture and Classification
2. Essentially, political culture is the collection of attitudes, beliefs, and values that members within a population generally hold toward politically relevant issues. This means, that political culture is a means to examine and explain the basis of political institutions and beliefs of a people. For instance, American political culture holds an enduring distrust for the consolidation of power in the hands of few people because of their experiences as a British colony. This can be seen in the numerous measures to ensure checks and balances of power within American political structure. Classifying political culture is done along the lines of the extent to which the population weighs individual liberties against stability, the amount of participation that citizens within a country expect to have within their governments, and whether or not there is generally a general consensus amongst the population regarding the major political issues such as the role and legitimacy of the operation of their government. By understanding the political culture of a country, one who studies the workings of a country’s government may gain a drastically increased perspective into that government far past the actual function of the government. Understanding the background of the political culture of a country permits us to know why things are the way they are, and reasonable infer certain future actions of a government.
Agents of Political Socialization
The agents that facilitate this socialization are overt at times, though they can also be more subtle in their influences of the political values of an individual. The first and most important agent in shaping the political values of a person is their family. Another of the most important of the factors which facilitate political socialization is their education. At an impressionable age, children and young adults are often shaped in their political values by the types of things that are emphasized in the classrooms, such as important civic attributes, and the importance of certain things like voting to Americans. Peer groups are also very important in the process of political socialization, especially during the period of adolescence. The media also plays an ever-increasing role in the formation of a person’s political values over the course of their lives. Something as innocent-seeming as a news broadcast can shape out political values much more than we could possibly ever consciously realize. Simple by the attitude by which a particular story is treated, the manner in which it is told, and selectively choosing which issues to focus upon, many media outlets know have an unprecedented amount of influence upon the political values of a person. The most important media factor in political socialization has unquestionably been the television. This medium has created a homogenization of American culture in that many Americans are now watching and listening and watching the same things as one another, and being indoctrinated within the same political values, creating a subconscious consensus within those who are exposed to it.
Belief System
An ordering of opinions and attitudes held together by some broader ideological theme or pattern; not a random assortment of beliefs. For example, conservative political party member believes in retention of traditional values and is against abortion because these are all ideas that fall within the scope of Christian values.
Malapportionment
Condition in which legislative districts are of very different sizes, making to vote of a citizen in a district with a large population effectively less influential than the vote of a citizen in a district with a small population. By setting up districts in such a manner, those citizens who live in a rural area with a smaller population have a disproportionately large say for their rural concerns in the legislature.
Proportional Representation and Single Member Districts
Two differing electoral system by which legislatures are elected, has differing affects on the political culture of the area. In proportional representation, the citizens vote for a particular political party in an election that selects all of their legislatures, rather than select an individual candidate as in single member districts. The outcome of the proportional representation is that the various political parties receive an amount of representation proportionate to the amount of popular vote they received, thus leading them being more viable for multiple political parties. Single-member districts decide on one single candidate for an entire district in a winner take all decision where those who vote for a candidate that did not win did not technically have any meaning in their vote, because their candidate lost.
Voter Turnout
A measure of how many of those who are permitted to take place in an election actually do.
US Voter Turnout
4. The voter turnout for elections held for the United States is much less than many of the other counties that are both democratic and industrialized. Americans are voting less than ever before, and there are several factors that are important to this statistic. Most significantly, the biggest impact upon the percentage of eligible voters who take place in elections has been the changing of the voting age minimum from twenty-one to eighteen. Historically, the demographic of 18-21 year olds has always been a very low turnout bracket. When this group was not allowed to vote, it did not count against the percentage of total American voters. Another deciding factor is an increasing sentiment cynicism in the American public regarding the true significance of their vote, and their ability to make a difference. Additionally, I believe that there is a large percentage of Americans that have lost their sight upon their civic duties
Public Opinion and Voting Choice
Public opinion and voting choice are influenced by many increasingly complex and interrelated factors. Public opinion and voting choice can be largely affected by preexisting circumstances of an individual that shape the way in which they perceive the world around them. For instance, ideological orientation can go a long way in creating a prejudice in a person either for or against a particular candidate based not on informed consideration of their stance on issues. Other vital influence in voting choice is the gender, race, religion, and socioeconomic status or a community standing based upon income, education, and job status. Of all influences upon the public opinion, the mass media is without a doubt the most important. Mass media has provided an environment with ever-increasing mediums through which the citizenry has the opportunity to view a candidate, which drastically increases the importance of the overall image of a potential candidate. Oftentimes, many voters who are not dedicated members of a political party; they will substitute their general feeling of their charisma or image, rather than deciding upon the issues themselves. Mass media has a very important role in shaping this impression of the candidate, which means that the mass media outlets possess a great power over the proceedings of political elections. The potential for the media to unfairly portray a particular candidate can potentially have a great affect upon the voting choice of the people.
Mass Parties
Political parties growing out of the working-class movement, usually in socialist orientation. Mass parties typically have a common desire to organize large portions of the population as party activists and to transmit to them the party ideology and program, often on the grassroots level.
Party Platform
A long document outlining, in detail, a political party’s position on issues. Party platforms reflect a party’s efforts to turn the raw demands of citizens and pressure groups into policy proposals, one of the chief functions of the political party.
Political Party
A political organization that unites people in effort to control the activities and policies of government. Significant in recruiting individuals for political office, processing a label or identity for candidates for the voting public, and facilitating voting unity in order to create a legislative majority.
Leadership Recruitment
. In the role of recruiting leadership, the political parties provide for an institutionalized process which usually means a gradual apprenticeship representing the party through gradually more significant positions of office or support by building on acquired merit and accomplishments. Additionally, this recruitment process provides for a general identity for the candidates in the eyes of the voters.
Types of Party Systems
2. Party systems are the characteristics of the array of parties operating in a particular country. It indicates the extent of competition between parties and the number that have a viable chance of winning election. No-party systems are an increasingly rare phenomenon in which a country does not have any established political parties with a meaningful, long-term following. This occurs most often within countries with premodern social and economic structures with very low levels of political participation. Since political decisions are left to a very small number of elites, there is no need for parties. One-party systems are typically mass-membership organizations within a country that seek to exercise total control over society and inculculate the population with the party’s ideological values. These occur often-times to indoctrinate the people of a country into a new political culture wherein; typically, support for the party was directly associated with support for the country. Two-party systems are closely associated with the Anglo-American societies in which there are two dominant political parties. This system is also often the byproduct of the electoral arrangements within a country because in a one-member representative district where the candidate is directly elected by his constituents, a third party is not viable because votes for such a party would not be represented in the legislature if their candidate did not win the most votes. Contrary to this would be the multiparty system. In legislatures with proportional representation, multiple parties are more prevalent because the amount of votes the party receives is proportionate to their percentage of representation within a government. However, under this system, there is typically the most difficulty in achieving a legislative majority. By understanding the characteristics of party systems one is able to gain more insight into the affects that they have on a political system as well as how, and in what capacity the political parties within this system are able to influence the government.
No-Party Regime
No-party systems are an increasingly rare phenomenon in which a country does not have any established political parties with a meaningful, long-term following. This occurs most often within countries with premodern social and economic structures with very low levels of political participation. Since political decisions are left to a very small number of elites, there is no need for parties.
Functions of Political Parties
. Political parties perform several roles, including; recruitment of political leadership, aid in formulating the government’s programs, political socialization, and organization of the government. In the role of recruiting leadership, the political parties provide for an institutionalized process which usually means a gradual apprenticeship representing the party through gradually more significant positions of office or support by building on acquired merit and accomplishments. Additionally, this recruitment process provides for a general identity for the candidates in the eyes of the voters. By knowing one’s party affiliation, the voter can reasonably expect certain things from a candidate. In the capacity of formulating government programs, political parties reduce the many conflicting political demands of the people into a manageable number of alternatives, known as political aggregation. This processes the raw demands of the citizenry into policy proposals. Political socialization is a vital function of the political party because it allows the people to become exposed to the processes of politics and the positions of their party. It helps citizens accept compromise of their specific views for an agreeable, more generally applicable agenda. Lastly, by organizing the government, political parties provide a link by which individual politicians in office can identify with one another in order to present a coherent program. In majority rules voting required to enact legislation, these affiliations provide a vital role in cooperation in which members of a party work together in order to get legislation agreeable to their party passed. These functions of the political parties are vital because they allow the voters to identify with a candidate, and have a more vested interest in them, and they also provide for an entity by which to compromise to formulate and enact legislation.
Elite Theory
Theory regarding the formation of interest groups that hold that single, generally unified elite dominates society. This provides a counter-argument against pluralism that gives reasoning behind the fact that despite the fact that there are certainly many people who would like to enact influence to facilitate their own interests; the few elites have virtually a monopoly over all of this influence, thus rendering the lesser class of people and organizations powerless.
Interest Groups
An organization that attempts to influence public policy in a specific area of importance to its members. Provide for a method to influence politicians’ actions other than their direct voting for a politician into office to represent them. Method by which even politicians that a group does not support or vote for can be influenced into placating them.
Types of Interest Groups
Labor unions are primarily collective-bargaining units that negotiate contracts for their members with employers. However, from time to time, these organizations apply their influence to politicians to create and pass legislation that create more favorable conditions to those in their industry or profession. Business organizations often take the role of interest groups when they put their efforts towards pushing for legislation that either keeps their businesses more profitable, or prevent legislation from occurring that would limit the profitability of their business. For example, business groups often pressure legislators to oppose labor-group demands which would increase the cost or labor, and often pursue or oppose changes in tax codes or government regulations. Gender, religious, ethnic and age interest groups use their power to influence legislation that either protects or furthers the rights and status of their members. For example, the NAACP attempts to pressure legislators to provide for special laws that they see as creating equality for African-Americans. Public interest groups are somewhat different than the preceding categories of interest groups because they are concerned with influencing lawmakers towards their vision of fairness and justice for some kind of general public interest, rather than the good of only their own membership. These organizations are public interest because they seek the actions and decisions that they feel are justified for the benefit of all citizens, for example, Mothers Against Drunk Driving. Additionally, professional associations and occupational groups, such as The American Bar Association, attempt to influence the government concerning professional licensing laws and regulations. Since effective licensing requirements can be enforced only through governmental action, professional associations exert much of their energy to influence that these policies are regulated in a manner that allows them to conduct their profession, and maintain the public trust. Interest groups of all types provide their members another avenue by which to influence the working of the government other than simply the election of their representatives.
Bicameralism
The division of the legislative branch into two segments, or houses. A bicameral government provides for several benefits for the people, including the presence of a second legislative body by which it is possible for subnational units like states and provinces to be represented. Additionally, bicameralism makes it more difficult to enact ill-considered, dangerous, or unwise legislation by the mere presence of an additional vote on legislation.
Committee System
Subdivision of legislative members into groups of manageable size for the careful consideration of legislation. Often aided by specialized expert staffs, also allows legislators some level of specialization. The way in which committees are empowered in a legislature. Committees in some systems are quite powerful, independently determining which bills become laws, whereas in other systems, they have little influence.
Constituent Service
Activities by legislators to obtain information, favors, and exceptions to regulations for their constituents, normally by making requests of administrative officials. Providing these services to their constituents is of great importance to the reelection of many legislators.
Delegate Model
The simplest approach to representation in which the representative acts in accordance with the expressed preferences of the constituency that elected them. Can be increasingly difficult as issues are becoming more complex, interdependent, and far-reaching.
Folkways
The norms and traditions observed in a legislature pertaining to the way that members treat one another and expect to be treated. Very important, because they attempt to ensure that despite many legislators from opposing parties, viewpoints and interests, they are able to amicably work together in the creation of policy and legislation.
Parliamentary System
A system of executive-legislative relations in which the legislature elects the chief executive. This system provides that the head executive, typically the prime minister, must retain the support of the party in parliament that won a majority of seats, thus keeping the head executive accountable to the legislature.
Politico Model
A mixed approach to representative politics in which, depending on the situation, the legislator will act as a delegate, directly representing the expressed will of their constituents and also as a trustee, using their own beliefs and reasoning to make a decision for their constituents.
Presidential System
A system of executive-legislative relations in which the chief executive is elected independently of the members of the legislature. This system means that the president is both head of state and government. Provides for greater checks against the legislature, but can also result in problems if a president and legislatures are unwilling to compromise.
Responsible Parties
Parties that can demand discipline from members elected to a legislature, who almost always vote in accordance with the party platform. This can achieve individual members of legislature from becoming drawn in to support narrows special interests or to be influenced by large campaign contributions.
Trustee Model
Model of representation in legislatures in which the legislator sees themselves as being chosen by their constituents for their personal beliefs and morals, as well as their ability to reason and make wise choices. Thus, legislators who follow this model make decisions based upon what their own judgment dictates, without the expressed approval of their constituency.
Models of Representation in Legislatures
3. Legislators are all elected by their constituents to represent them in the formation of laws and policy, but the methods by which legislators choose to carry out their representation of their constituents are very different. The simplest approach to representation is the delegate model, in which the legislator makes their decisions largely on the basis of the expressed wishes of constituents, acting as their spokesman. A legislator who uses the trustee model for representing their constituents sees themselves as being elected based upon their own wisdom and reasoning ability, not just their campaign promises, thus they represent their people based upon the notion that they have been entrusted to use their best own judgment to make decisions that they feel are right, with little consideration for the wishes of their constituents. The last method of representation is the politico model. In this approach, legislators use a mixture of the delegate model and the trustee model of representation based upon the specific circumstances. For example, a legislator from Wisconsin would likely act as a delegate in issues relating to dairy farming or agriculture, and supporting the will of his constituents whom such legislature would have a large impact upon. However, in a complex or divisive issue such as global warming or abortion, the legislator would incorporate the use of the trustee model, and thus use their best judgment to make an informed decision about a topic that would not likely be within the scope of their average constituent.
Functions of Modern Legislatures
2. Modern legislatures are the institution that is used by modern era governments to create the laws of a land. Modern legislatures are all multinumbered, formally equal in the amount of power each member within the same body holds, and they all make decisions based upon the counting of votes. The primary function of the legislature is to make laws, but they also occasionally elect or appoint at least some of the governmental offices, provide for a judicious capacity for hearing charges brought up against government officeholder and programs, investigate governmental operations, and provide varying levels of constituent services for those they represent. Modern legislatures are structured based upon their relationship with the executive branch of government. The two most prevalent structures of this dichotomy are the parliamentary system and the presidential system. In the parliamentary system, the head executive is chosen by the legislature, and is often known as the prime minister. In this arrangement, the prime minister must retain the support of the current majority party in the legislature, and is thus held accountable to them. Contrastingly, the presidential system provides that the head executive is selected independently of the legislature, and thus the head of both the state and the government, and not accountable to the legislative body.
Charismatic Authority
The use of one’s personal magnetism in order to exert influence over others. Executives who employ this method of leadership command respect, and even adulation from their followers, often moving them to make great sacrifices for them. The importance of this authority is that is stems not from a legal basis for their power but rather, from the individual’s personal gifts.
Chief Administrators
Role held by the chief executive of a government in which they have primary responsibility for managing the agencies that implement government programs and laws. A government member with some central authority and singular leadership is required to conducts such a task because it involves the coordination of so many different parts.
Rational-Legal Authority
Authority that is gained through the adherence to law, and the legal authority expressed in their position.
Representative Authority
Authority that is an executive perceives by their decision that the people, or the legislature that has elected them, has given them the authority to make decisions as they see fit.
Symbolic Leadership
A unifying symbol of a nation that transcends a leader’s specific powers and functions. Most apparent during times of crisis, when national unity is essential. Provide a leader for the people to rally around.
Traditional Authority
Authority derived from the fact that the institutionalized positions they hold are established in the traditions of the culture. Also prevents certain executives from breaking tradition. Limitations placed on these leaders' power because they are more likely prohibited from breaking with tradition in their actions.
Functions of Executive Institutions
. One of the most important, functions of the chief executive is diplomacy. It is very difficult for multimember legislatures of different countries to interact and build meaningful and essential relations with one another, must be done by a singular figurehead. Likewise, the chief executive provides a symbolic leadership, by providing a figurehead for the government for people to identify with, and rally a country through tough times. Additionally, the chief executive provides the role of budget formulation. In this capacity, it is their responsibility to determine a set of goals with price tags attached for a proposed federal budget, so important, because the executive is federally accountable, not interested particularly in local affairs. Executives also typically operate to control the military, a role that is closely tied into their diplomatic and emergency leadership roles. Executives also provide policy initiatives, important because as the most visible leader in a government, they are more capable of gaining support. There are several types of structures that the chief executive of a country can take, including; hereditary monarchy, directly elected chief executives, chief executives in parliamentary systems, and non-democratic executives. Executives in a hereditary monarchy hold office based merely upon their family lineage. These are decreasingly prevalent, and where they do exist, they often hold a merely symbolic role. Directly elected chief executives are directly elected by the citizens of a country. This makes them very powerful because they become the only official to be chosen by national election, and are accountable only to the people. Chief executives in parliamentary systems are elected by and accountable to the legislature of a country. This limits their power somewhat, because their authority is dictated upon their approval by the dominant party within parliament. Non-democratic executives are chief executives who take power without being elected by either a legislature or the people of their country. Often a single-party leader, head of military, or religiously sanction figure. These are prevalent in countries that have a weak legislature, which enables a strong executive.
Approaches to Executive Leadership
3. Authority of the chief executive is derived from several different means, which vary in relevance greatly amongst countries. Charismatic authority is the use of one’s personal magnetism in order to exert influence over others. This commands respect from their followers, but is not a legal power, but rather from someone’s personal gifts. Traditional authority is authority derived from the fact that the institutionalized positions they hold are established in the traditions of the culture. Also prevents certain executives from breaking with tradition. Rational-legal authority is authority that is gained from the adherence to law, and the legal authority expressed in their position. Representative authority is authority that is gained by an executive when they decide that the people or legislature that has elected them has enabled them to make decisions. Coercive Authority is authority that is gained by an executive through the use, or threat of use of force against their people. Through this, they intimidate or subjugate their people into compliance with them.
Adversarial System
Anglo-American legal tradition in which the judge is supposed to be impartial, representing neither party but standing for the interests of the justice system. The judge is relatively passive as the plaintiff and defendant present evidence, examine witnesses, and make legal arguments. This makes for the provision of a grand jury that makes preliminary decisions in criminal cases, since the judge is essentially neutral.
Civil Law
Has to do with two individuals have a dispute in which the state is not concerned. In this venue, cases are brought as suits by a party claiming damages inflicted upon them by another private party.
Common Law
A distinct kind of law that also guides judicial decisions. Essentially, this means that in the lack of a comprehensive, detailed statutory code, judges apply principles of fairness that have become established in certain areas in making their rulings. This means that they use the precedents set by cases of a similar nature in the past to guide their decisions.
Criminal Law
Has to do with actions that the state has defined as criminal violations. This means that those accused of a crime threatened the security of a society at large, and thus are punished for doing so.
Judicial Activism
The principle holding that judges should follow their own values in deciding how to interpret statutes and provisions of basic law.
Judicial Restraint
The principle holding that judges should be reluctant to overturn legislative or executive laws and decisions, doing so only when necessary.
Judicial Review
The power of courts to overturn or void actions or laws that they feel are unlawful or inconsistent with basic law.
Natural Law
Moral or ethical standard grounded either in nature itself, by stating the way certain things should be according to natural order, or in theology, based upon what a divine being has dictated.
Positive Law
The body of law devised by humans, institutionalized and enforced by governments. Generally contrasted by natural law.
Statutory Law
Laws passed by the legislature or a parliament whose provisions are usually codified. Includes proscriptions of criminal acts, the establishment of tax obligations, the creation of regulatory powers, and many other matters.
Functions of Judicial Institutions
1. Most broadly, judicial institutions exist to perform the role of rule adjudication, or the application of general laws to individual cases. However, in filling this most basic role, the judiciary also manages to perform several other functions as a byproduct. Judicial institutions provide conflict resolution for people by providing non-interested, third parties to resolve disputes. Judicial institutions also function in the maintenance of social control. By having access to a means through which to resolve their conflicts, the people in a society are more likely to be stabilized. Regime legitimization is also a critical function of judicial institutions. In analyzing and ruling upon the laws of a land, the courts subsequent support of the legislation process provides legal basis for the regime in power. Also, these institutions function to protect minority rights. In a system that is dictated by majority rules voting, the judiciary institutions ensure that minorities that could potentially be ignored or violated by a legislature are not. Finally, judicial institutions provide the function of making public policy. Rulings of the courts decide whether policy, no matter how popular amongst the people or legislature, is valid to the principles of a government.
Bureaucracy
The government organizations, usually staffed with officials selected on the basis of their expertise that implement public policy. Characterized by the individuals who make them up being chosen based on their merit, their authority is structured in a firm hierarchal system, their operation based upon a set of written rules, and their fixed jurisdictions and specific tasks.
Bureaucrats
The people working for the public sector who are appointed on the basis of training and experience, usually applied to an official with a specified realm of authority. These people are not chosen by popularity or cronyism, but rather their merit, because they are not technically associated with the political or representative actions of governments, but rather to implement a government’s public policy.
Iron Triangles
A close connection among bureaucratic agencies, interest groups, and legislative committees in specific policy areas. The theory holds that those whose interests are outside of this triangular relationship are typically powerless to force policy actions opposed to those who are in this triangular relationship. This is significant because it is one of the factors that contribute to the bureaucratic resistance to democratic control of their institutions.
Patronage
The appointing or hiring of individuals to positions by political leaders based upon their loyalty and services they have contributed to a politician or political party, rather than based upon merit. Bureaucracies, in theory, functionally work to prevent this practice in their institutions because their fixed jurisdictions and responsibility for specific tasks allows for them to specialize in an area of focus, thus making it necessary to have individuals with expertise and experience in their field.
Routines
Written rules and procedures within bureaucratic institutions that allow for the efficient processing of cases that are typical. However, this same routine in their procedures also creates rigidity within bureaucracies that make it difficult for them to make adjustments or modifications when a special case arises. Although these routines do allow for this potential problem, they do contribute to overall efficiency in their typical cases.
Functions of the Bureaucracies
1. Bureaucracies are the government organizations, usually staffed with officials selected on the basis of expertise and experience, which implement and sometimes make public policy. Bureaucracies all share some degree of five different characteristics: have workers that operate within a fixed jurisdiction that enables them to develop expertise, exercise their authority within a firm system of hierarchy, operate on the basis of written rules in order to ensure the consistency of treatment and efficiency and that their workings are not dependant upon the personality or opinions of individuals, and they are staffed by members with expert training. These parameters essentially describe agencies that are staffed by experts in order to perform specific specialized tasks within a predetermined jurisdiction. The people who make up the bureaucracy are public officials who acquire their positions on the basis of their qualifications and skills and who are primarily responsible for the implementation of public policy. This distinction makes the clear differentiation that the individuals who make up the bureaucracy are not elected or appointed officials, but rather, specially trained individuals who are hired competitively amongst other candidates based on their ability to perform their position.
Bureaucratic Growth and Why it Grows
3. Bureaucratic growth is the increase the numbers and reach of bureaucratic institutions, often resulting in the increase in their proportion of consumption of a nation’s gross national product. Bureaucracy grows for two distinct and different reasons. The first and most important reason for bureaucratic growth is our growing need for bureaucracy. As our societies become more industrial, scientific, and technologically advanced and complicated, there is a corresponding need for government agencies to oversee and especially regulate dynamically changing socioeconomic circumstances. Additionally, in increasingly affluent societies who do not have as much concern regarding their basic needs, citizens increasingly demand governmental attention to social values. The other reason for bureaucratic growth is political pressure. In industrial societies, interest groups demand regulations and services that require the creation of new agencies. Even in lesser developed countries, the growth of the bureaucracy is often necessary in ensuring stability. In these countries with comparitively less economic opportunities, governments see benefits in employing educated individuals for an unneeded larger bureaucracy in order to prevent these individuals from causing political unrest.
Balance of Power
The idea that relative power levels among competing states is the main determinant of stability in international relations and threat the behavior of individual states is explained in terms of the state of the whole system. Whereas in the balance of power, certain wars and conflicts will be averted, while in the absence of a balance of power, a situation will arise where either the stronger nation will act more aggressively or the weaker nation will seek to acquire allies to rebalance power. The notion of a naturally action towards the balancing of power amongst states in order to protect their security is no longer a useful predictive tool in foreign relations. The advent of nuclear weapons has effectively put an end to the flexible levels of threat that could be exercised by a conventional military force. The nuclear weapon prevents a stable, continuous threat of the same level always, they can either be deployed or not.
Economic Internationalism
Also referred to as liberalism, holds the basic principle that so long as governments do not interfere with economic affairs, nations will ultimately produce goods or services for which they, for whatever reason, have a comparative advantage in. If left alone, eventually each country would naturally gravitate toward producing only those products that they have a comparative advantage in producing, other countries would do the same, and there would be an increased benefit amongst all people because they would be producing the goods and services that they have the most advantage at producing, and could in trade, could obtain the goods and services from other people in a better manner because they would be doing the same.
Economic Nationalism
Although both economic internationalism and economic structuralism assume that the economic relations are the primary force behind politics. In contrast, economic nationalism, sometimes called mercantilism, sees politics as the primary force in international economic relations. This view emphasizes the importance of state interests in national security, power, and industrial development and it claims that states naturally pursue economic policies that promote those foreign national goals.
Economic Structuralism
Unlike those who advocate the “liberal” approach, some analysts and many Third World leaders embrace a perspective that emphasizes that international political competition does not take place on a level playing field. They believe that advanced industrial states’ much greater development makes free trade between them and a lesser developed nation to be unavoidable unfair. Thus, economic structuralists argue for strict state controls on commerce, or state ownership of all industry.
Idealism
Set of beliefs regarding international relations in which there is an assumption that war and international tensions can be prevented by establishing international law, by creating effective international organizations, by asserting rights and obligations in international affairs, and be educating citizens and leaders regarding the wastefulness of war. This thought system thus advocates a set of normative principles telling us what we should do; and that causes of war can be found in ill-conceived ideologies. Both idealism and realism came about following the horrific transition into modern warfare ushered in by WWI, Wilson used his idealistic beliefs to attempt to form The League of Nations, a failed attempted at a normative international institution.
Just War
The philosophical tradition that attempts to define the conditions under which war is just and those under which it is not. This has two key components; when war is justified, and how war is conducted. War is justified when it is seen as necessary to defend against outside threats, when innocent lives would otherwise be lost, when basic human rights are severely deprived, or when the future of the world community is at stake. The idea of war also provides that war must only be fought by competent authorities, that no futile fighting in defense of a cause be undertaken, and that there be no intentional attacks on civilians.
Realism
Holds that actual motivations for national behavior are often quite different from what is implied in the public rhetoric of leaders. A nation may claim to act in accordance with moral, religious, even legal principles; but its real purpose is almost always the pursuit of security and power. By emphasizing power, realism minimizes the place of ideals as a motivating force in international relations; a moral point of view not backed up by power will have little impact upon world affairs.
International Law
International law consists primarily of traditionally recognized treaties and rights and duties. International laws, in essence, are an attempt to constrain certain behaviors of a country, but often have the problem of being unenforceable. However, the establishment of such laws provides an invaluable method by which countries may communicate and determine the nature of their own relations to any country in violation of international law.
Unpredictability of Foreign Policy Desicions
3. Foreign policy decision-making is especially difficult to predict the outcome of because it is not a simple process of a unified, well-informed leadership choosing the optimum alternatives to achieve a definite objective. This is because in the making of foreign-policy, there are many different actors who represent many different core interests they are pursuing as an outcome. Foreign policy decisions may be constrained or influenced by the force of organizational routines in the institutions involved in a nation’s foreign policy system Whereas rationality assumes that a single decision maker is free to shape their own choices purely on the basis of a clear policy objective, the actual decision-making process requires the cooperation of a complex array of established institutions. Additionally, foreign policy decisions may not amount to a rational plan to achieve a leader’s clear objectives because of conflicting political influences that affect those policies. Especially in modern democracies, the actual foreign policies of nations often deviate from the policies that pure rationality would predict, because the process involves interest groups and other participants with conflicting goals. The ideal condition for rational decision making is a single leader acting in isolation, free from demands by interest groups, parties, and campaign contributions. Lastly, limits on information and on time for careful deliberation can produce irrational decisions.
TNC's
Transnational corporations, corporations with a vast economic reach that controls far-flung industrial and financial empires. These corporations inherently have little concern for national boundaries and a globalized economy threatens to diminish the importance of the nation-state. There is a great deal of concern regarding the concentration of such economic power, and many see it as a direct challenge to the national sovereignty of many nation-states.
European Union
The Western European trade and economic organization that binds together fifteen of the region’s nations. Although this association had beginnings aimed merely at the economic relationships between European countries, there has since been an increased role that has seen them develop and maintain a common currency, the euro, as well as to extend their reach into developing increased political unity. They have developed a European Court of Justice that has the power to overturn decisions from individual member countries, as well as a European parliament that sees individual representatives vote not along membership country lines, but rather ideological blocs.
Free Trade
Export and import commerce between nations that is relatively unimpeded by tariffs, quotas, or other government-created barriers to trade. This has become increasingly important in the increasingly modern, global economy in which there are significantly decreased communication and transportation barriers for foreign trade. Allows for the implementation, on some level, of nations playing to their own competitive advantage, producing products they are most capable of producing efficently and exporting them, while importing other less efficiently produced products.
Green Party
Political parties with a platform primarily devoted to protecting the environment. Taking a strong stand on ecological issues such as global warming and pollution, these parties have been most successful in Western Europe but exist in other regions as well. This is significant because these parties represent an increasing awareness of important environmental issues. Additionally, the election of certain members of these environmentally conscious parties to legislative bodies like the EU represent in increased awareness that these problems transcend national borders and affect all people.
New World Order
Vision for the future of the world in which there would be close cooperation among all the world’s major powers to deter future aggression and maintain international stability. In addition, it was seen as a vehicle through which the spreading of democracy and free market economies could be spread throughout the world. Important because such an ideal represents a fundamental conflict between the emerging values of the global community and the sovereignty of individual states.
NATO
A defense community established by the United States and many of its Western European allies during the cold war. Its purpose was to defend Europe against a possible attack by the Soviet Union and its Eastern European allies in the Warsaw Pact.
Nuclear Proliferation
The spread of nuclear weapons or of the capacity to produce nuclear weapons to additional countries, especially to the developing world. This is seen as particularly troubling because many of these countries have shown themselves to be rouge states, with past records of international terrorism and belligerence that do not inspire consequence. Additionally, many others, such as Pakistan and India, are embroiled in bitter regional conflicts and even if all nuclear powers were to try to act responsibly, the chances of war by miscalculation increase greatly as the world’s nuclear capable nations and their capacity grows.
The End of the Cold War, Creation of an Uncertain Future
1. The end of the cold war has created a climate of uncertainty in international relations because the nature of the conflict that dominated international relations for almost fifty years was suddenly gone with the ending of the USSR. In the absence of a rigid and adversarial relationship amongst the two superpowers, much of Europe, especially those nations that had formerly belonged to the Warsaw Pact found themselves with little guidance for the international relations. These countries, which had previously had a parent-state in the former USSR through which they were controlled and economically backed no longer had a force through which to control their ethnic and cultural disputes. Additionally, with the former USSR becoming less economically and militarily relevant on the world stage, the remaining superpower, the US, has had to redefine exactly what its role in international relations would be. In the absence of the Soviet spread of communism being perceived as the ultimate threat, there is less likelihood of the US providing aid and guidance to developing countries that once seemed vital in maintaining their own sphere of influence to counter Soviet domination of the free world.
Success of New World Order or World Without Order?
2. For the most part, the idea of a new world order has not taken shape as it has been envisioned. This is largely due to the impact that forming such a coalition would have upon the individual countries taking part in it. In order to carry out such a unified and cooperative approach to world relations, all of the countries involved would undoubtedly have to relinquish a measure of their own sovereignty in order to achieve collective goals for such a group. The pure fact that there are so many nations around the world that, ultimately, will do whatever is in their own best interests defeats the prospect of such a movement from occurring. For instance, there have been countless ethnic hostilities that have resulted in the deaths of millions that have erupted in the time since the end of the cold war has ended. Although the UN as a possible means by which such a new world order may be carried out, its lack of substantial success in ending or preventing such chaos from occurring shows a fundamental failure. Although there is hope that the more powerful nations around the world will provide a stabilizing role in such events, evidence suggests that there is largely an unwillingness to become involved in politically or diplomatically provocative situations.