Political Science Vocabulary List

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Austerity

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reducing government spending, usually in a attempt to pay off debts. Spending cuts are often those of social welfare or education programs and many times are a requirement of countries received IMF or World Bank assistance.

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Something to do with government spending

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Authoritarian

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a system of governing that is based on coercion, rather than on genuine legitimacy. (Note: an authoritarian system may or may not also be totalitarian.)

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Bicameral legislature

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a legislative body with two distinct houses or chambers

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Bureaucracy

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an impersonal and hierarchically-structured organization that is charged with carrying out the policies and programs of a government

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Cabinet

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the head of government’s closest advisors. In a parliamentary system, cabinet members head up administrative bureaucracies (called ministries) and are responsible to parliament. In a presidential system, the cabinet is responsible to the president.

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Capitalism

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an economic system that emphasizes private ownership and a market-based economy

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Catch all party

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a political party that attempts to gain the support of a wide base, rather than being strongly ideological.

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Causation

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a correlation in which one variable results in the change in others

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Charismatic authority

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as per Max Weber, it is authority "resting on devotion to the exceptional sanctity, heroism, or exemplary character of an individual person, and of the normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him"

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Civil liberties

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basic rights of freedom that must be protected *from* the state; the most common examples are freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom of the press

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Civil rights

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basic rights of a citizen that must be protected *by* the state; the most common examples are the right to vote, the right to obtain a fair trial with adequate legal assistance

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Civil service

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a branch of government in which individuals are employed on the basis of merit, usually through competitive examinations, rather than on the basis of connections or political considerations

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Civil society

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all organizations outside of government that provide avenues of political participation in society

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Cleavages

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distinct socio-economic-political divisions within a society; can include race, religion, ethnicity, geography, income, historic, cultural, etc.

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Communism

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also known as “Marxism”, after its father, Karl Marx. A political and economic system in which most or all economic decision making is undertaken by a central government and not market forces

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Confederation

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a form of government in which the various regions have their own governments and are largely sovereign over their own affairs. The central government has little or no power.

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Conservative

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suggests a social or political ideology that supports change in a very gradual fashion and that largely supports the traditional sources of authority

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Constitution

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a supreme law that provide the structure of a nation-state’s regime and the legal processes that government must follow

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Corporatism

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a system of government in which the government is dominated by representatives of groups within that society. To a certain degree (depending on how democratic the system is) there is usually some level of official limitation on groups that can be represented.

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Correlation

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an apparent association between two variables; a link (though not necessarily a cause-effect relationship)

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Corruption

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dishonest or fraudulent conduct for personal gain by those in positions of power

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Command economy

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see communism. Government controls all economic decisions.

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Code law

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law based on a comprehensive system of written laws, divided into criminal, civil, and commercial codes; Russia, China, and Mexico are examples

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Common law

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law based on tradition, past practices, and legal precedents set by the courts through interpretations of statutes, legal legislation, and past rulings; practiced in Great Britain

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Decentralization

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the process of redistributing or dispersing functions, powers, people or things away from a central location or authority

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Democratization

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the process of democratic government to more parts of the world and/or the process of making current democratic regimes more democratic

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Democratic deficit

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when supposedly democratic institutions or governments in reality fall short of their democratic principles

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Development

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usually refers to economic, industrial, and/or political development (democratization) in traditionally poorer countries

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Devolution

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the transfer of all responsibility for decision-making, finance, and certain public functions to the sub-national level (city, state, regional, local)

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Distributional Politics

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the use of power by the state to allocate resources among competing groups in society

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Economic liberalization

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policies designed to limit government involvement or control over economic activity; implies few trade restrictions and little government regulation of the economy

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Electoral system

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a legal system for voting and choosing leaders in a democracy

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Elite recruitment

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the ways and means that people are selected for future political leadership

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Empirical statements

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agreed upon facts that have been gathered through experimentation and unbiased collection of data

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Executive

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from the head of government to the lowest bureaucrat, this is the branch of government responsible for executing (carrying out) the laws of a state

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Federal state

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a regime in which the political authority is shared between the central and local governments

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Feedback

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the reactions of people, organizations, and others to political decisions that shape future policymaking

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Fiscal policy

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government decisions about total public spending and revenue

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First past the Post

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a system in which the leading vote-getter (even if by a mere plurality and not by a majority) becomes the sole representative of a voting district

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Fusion of power

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a government system in which the authority of the government is concentrated in a single body

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GDP per capita

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the value of the goods and services produced within a country, divided by the number of inhabitants

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Gini Index

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a statistical calculation that attempts to show the level of income equality within a country. Scores rank from 1 – 100, with 30 or lower signifying relative income equality and 50 or higher indicating very high levels of inequality

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Globalization

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the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of people, cultures, economies, and states. Usually facilitated by trade, technology, and mobility of populations.

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Head of government

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the top government official who oversees the effective functioning of a state’s government. Usually the president or prime minister.

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Head of state

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the chief public face of a state. Sometimes, this person is a mere figurehead; other times, it is the same person as the HOG.

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Identity politics

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political activity and ideas based on the shared experience of an ethnic, religious, or social group, emphasizing gaining power and benefits for that group, rather than more universal goals

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Ideology

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a system of ideas and ideals, particularly those that form the basis of economic or political theory or practice.

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Illiberal democracy

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countries that theoretically have democratic procedures on the books (mostly regular elections), but have severe restrictions on personal freedoms

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Import Substitution model

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a government policy that uses tariffs and other trade restrictions to encourage domestic production of some goods

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Inputs

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demands and support by individuals and groups on the policymaking process of government

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Initiative

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a vote on policy or law initiated directly by the people

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Interest group aggregation

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ways in which demands of citizens and groups are organized and combined into policy proposals backed by significant political resouces

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Interest group articulation

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involves individuals and groups expressing their political needs and demands

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Interest groups

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any organization that seeks to influence government policy making to better serve the self-perceived wants and needs of their members

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Judicial review

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the power of the courts to modify or overturn actions of legislatures, executives, or lower courts

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Keynesian Economics

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John Maynard Keynes’ theory that governments should spend and expand social welfare during economic downturns, while reducing spending and the money supply during boom periods

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Legitimacy

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the widespread belief that a regime is a proper one and has the right to exercise authority

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Liberal

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an 18th century-derived term that puts tremendous emphasis on individual freedoms (political, social, economic) and is willing to reject tradition views in terms of steady, non-radical change. (Not to be confused with a political “liberal” (ie, “left-leaning”) in a particular country

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Liberal Democracy

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systems that “include civil liberties, rule of law, neutrality of the judiciary, open civil society, civilian control of the military”

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Market economy

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see capitalism. Most economic decisions are left to individuals and to privately-owned businesses

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Mixed electoral system

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combines first past the post and proportional representation into a single electoral system. Mexico is an example

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Multi-party system

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usually a parliamentary system in which more than two parties seriously compete and regularly win at least some representation

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Nation

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a group of people who identify themselves as belonging together because of ethnic, cultural, geographic, or linguistic ties

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Nationalization

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government assuming control of privately held resources or businesses; a hallmark of more socialist nations

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Nomenklatura

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a system of elite recruitment in communist systems in which the Party maintains control over all important government positions

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Nongovernmental organization

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private groups that pursue political or social goals outside of the formal mechanism of governments. Those operating across national borders are called INGOs. Those organized by a government itself are called GONGOs.

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Normative statements

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statements that contain overt or underlying considerations of values, preferences, or what should be

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Oligarchy

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a system of governance dominated by a small group of people in the state

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One-party dominant system

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in which one given party has won numerous successive elections and it would be difficult to imagine them losing in the near future

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One-party system

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a system in which only one political party is allowed to form or contest elections

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Parastatals

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government-owned corporations instituted either because the private sector isn’t capable of providing one, or when a service is considered so important to a population that it can’t be made a profit-bearing activity. (Examples would be the postal service, utility companies, et. al.)

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Parliamentary system

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in which the head of government is chosen by and serves by the consent of the legislature.

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Patron-client system

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or clientalism/prebendalism/guanxi; a usually informal alliance between the person holding power and less powerful individuals or groups in society. The politician gets support, while the other folks get jobs, protection, land, or goods. “You scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.”

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Plebiscite

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an election in which the voters vote “yes” or “no” on a resolution. Often non-binding and serve to gauge (or manipulate) public opinion

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Pluralism

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a situation in which power is split among many groups that compete for the chance to influence the government's decision-making

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Plurality

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the highest percentage of a vote, though short of a majority. Enough to win in a FPTP system

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Political efficacy

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a citizen’s ability to understand and affect political events. (Can’t also refer to the citizen’s self-perceived ability to do both

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Political culture

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the collection of the history, values, beliefs, assumptions, attitudes, traditions, and symbols that define and influence political behavior in a nation-state

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Political parties

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an organized group of people who attempt to elect its members to political office and/or to represent and advocate for political outlooks and ideologies

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Political socialization

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the formal and informal teaching of political and social norms and values to the population; develops through government policy, media, family, and aspects of the political culture

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PPP

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Purchasing Power Parity; a slight take on GDP per capita, in that this stat also factors in the costs of goods within a given country

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Presidential system

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where citizens vote for legislative representatives as well as for executive branch leaders and the two branches function with separation of powers

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Privatization

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the process of putting businesses and resources once owned by the government into the hands of private investors and owners. (See economic liberalization or neoliberalism)

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Procedural Democracy

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where democratic procedures are in place, but have significant restrictions

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Proportional representation

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in which voters vote for a party rather than an individual and the party gets a percentage of legislative seats roughly equal to the percentage of votes it received

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Qualitative Research

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case studies of historic and culture aspects of political systems

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Quantitative Research

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statistical studies which seek correlations and causations between data

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Radical

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dramatic and rapid; a radical politician supports immediate change, up to and including revolution

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Referendum

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a direct vote by the entire voting population on a policy or piece of legislation

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Regime

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in general, this is the regular and ongoing pattern for organizing a state’s government. In short, it’s “the way a country’s political system works”. Most often, this refers to authoritarian regimes, but it’s equally valid to speak of democratic regimes, as well

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Rentier state

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a country that makes a substantial part of its income via oil or other natural resources (referred to as “rent”).

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Rule of Law

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constitutionalism; a predictable governance and legal system in which no one is above the law

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Separation of power

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system of government in which power is divided among separate bodies and each body has the ability to check (limit) the powers of the other bodies

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Sharia

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“Islamic law”, or law derived from the Qu’ran. It is the full or partial basis of law in some Muslim-majority countries.

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Single member districts

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an electoral system in which a defined electoral district selects one candidate to represent it. If that candidate only needs a plurality of the vote to win, it is also called a “first past the post” system.

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Social Democracy

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a political philosophy that includes free elections, egalitarian social policies, and creation of a social welfare system

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Sovereignty

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independent legal authority over a population in which a state makes and carries out the laws by which its people abide

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State

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in essence, this is the government. It involves the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as the military and the bureaucracy. In some definitions, “state” also includes other entities that have an impact upon policy and government.

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Structural adjustment

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World Bank and International Monetary Fund (and other donor organizations, like the EU) requirements to developing countries that are receiving assistance. Usually involves privatization, government spending reductions, and trade liberalization.

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Substantive Democracy

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a democratic system in which a wide variety of groups and individuals in society have genuine and important input in the political debate and into policy formation

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Supranational Organization

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an organization that works operates separately from the sovereignty of individual states and, at times, actually supersedes state sovereignty (e.g. the European Union)

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Theocracy

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a state dominated and controlled by the clergy

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Transitional democracy

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countries that have moved (or are seemingly moving from) an authoritarian system to a democratic one

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Two-party system

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a political system in which only two parties have a legitimate chance to assume power and win pretty much all of the elected seats

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Unicameral legislature

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in which the legislative branch consists of only one house or body

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Unitary state

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when there is a concentration of power in the central government; contrasts w/a federal state

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Welfare state

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a state which provides a wide array of social services—health care, education, employment opportunities or substitutions, etc.—for its members