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110 Cards in this Set
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Political Science
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the academic discipline that covers the domain of politics as its subject matter.
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Politics
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the arrangements, frameworks, and rules that human beings devise for living together
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Political Theory
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exploring alternatives to the world as it is
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Sociological Criterion
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When those who are ruled believe that their authority is legitimate, for whatever reason
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Thin Self:
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an individual, chooses its commitments, proceeds its roles and commitments, sustains a distinct between "real me" and "my roles
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Thick Self
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not an individual, is defined by its commitments, no distinction between "real me" and "my commitments"
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Communitarianism
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a communal system based on cooperative groups that practice some of the principles of communism
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Anarchism
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the political belief that society should have government, laws, or authority, but chould be a free association with all its members
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Consent Theory
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consent of those who are ruled as an idea of political legitimacy: fair and free elections, opportunities for people to express their opinions
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Tacit Consent
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implied, can be interpretted out of situations
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Explicit Consent:
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stated or indicated very clearly, concrete evidence
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Hobbes' S.O.N:
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-humans equal to eachother (equal right to what they desire)
-this right in unenforceable w/o gov -individuals enforce their own right |
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The most fundamental right according to Hobbes:
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SELF-PRESERVATION
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Hobbes idea of Political Legitimacy
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-consent based
-people should consent to a government that is extremely authoritarian |
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Hobbes ideas of reasons to quarrel in S.O.N
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-competition
-diffidence(distrust) -glory |
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Hobbes: what exactly is self -preservation?
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individuals judge what they NEED for self preservation (because of this nobodys preservation is secure)
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Hobbes' L.O.N:
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-general rules concerning the means of self-preservation
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Hobbes' definition of SOVERIGN POWER:
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"one person, of whose acts a great multitude, by mutual covenants with one another"
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Hobbes' idea of THE COVENANT:
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authorizing and giving up ones rights of governing themselves to one man on the condition that others do so as well
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Krypotkin & goldman urge us to be critical of:
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Human Nature Argument
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Goldmans views on Human Nature:
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How much do we really know about human nature?
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What is political legitimacy?
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a status that all governments claim to have in order to justify their right to govern their citizens. There is no distinct definition of what makes a government politically legitimate; however ideas and notions of legitimacy tend to stem from abiding by and obtaining power via social laws, norms, or standards. Ideas of legitimacy often stem from normative ideas for establishing and distributing power such as ‘might makes right’, divine right, merit, or structures based on patriarchy or the supremacy of the white race.
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Normative Political Theory?
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Normative criteria is one way to make authority legitimate. Some criteria include: divine right, "might makes right," "inheritance makes right," patriarchy, merit, procedures, benefits for those who are ruled, consent of those who are ruled. (More specifically, how should political systems be arranged such that they achieve a theorist’s most important moral value: e.g. freedom, or equality).
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argument for political rebellion (declaration of independence)
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The argument for political rebellion found in the Declaration of Independence is based on that all people have certain inalienable rights, which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Since government is set up to protect the rights of the people, who are the source of its power, if it fails to do so or violates this mandate, it is within their right to either reform it or rebel.
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argument for political recognition and inclusion (senaca falls convention and douglass)
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The argument for political recognition and inclusion based on the Seneca Falls Convention and Frederick Douglass is that the Declaration of Independence recognizes that all people are created equal and possess inalienable rights protected by the government that obtains its power from the people; as such, both women and slaves should be entitled to the same rights as white men: life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. Slaves would be free, both ex-slaves and women would be equal to white men in status before the law, with the right to own property and fair legal treatment.
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Wisdom and ignorance according to Plato's Socrates?
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• Wisdom is knowing what we do not know
• Ignorance is thinking you know something that you do not know • The greatest sin for Socrates is ignorance and the ultimate goal is wisdom |
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Reasons to endorse socrates decision to accept the decision of the jury:
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Socrates tacitly consented to the Laws of Athens by living there (or long term residence); so to go against the decision of the jury would be to disobey the laws and Socrates says that “ I must obey the law and make my defense”. So Socrates has to accept the decision of the jury. Another reason is that Socrates believes that his identity depends on his social rules and that the social rules are made possible by the community he lives in. So then if he destroys the community he lives in by disobedience or not accepting the decision of the jury then his identity is destroyed.
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Reasons to criticize socrates decision to accept the decision of the jury:
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Some people believe that “you should never give up your life when you can save it” and by accepting the decision of the jury that you are just giving up your life. Also Socrates has an obligation to his children and friends to stay alive and so if Socrates accepts the decision than he is being selfish and not thinking about how it will effect his children and friends
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State of nature according to Hobbes:
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all men are equal and have rights to all things (land, fruits, etc.) and self-preservation. Since there is no standing law the only thing that matters is the will of the strongest individual. This put all men to compete with each other to become the strongest person. Hobbes' state of nature is then a state of war.
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State of nature according to locke:
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in his state of nature, a few rules exist. This set of rules is called the law of nature; self-preservation and preservation for humankind. To preserve himself, he must work to get food to feed himself. According to Locke, mixing labor with natural things such as land, fruits, etc. gives him the property rights to the things. (Note here that Hobbes and Locke are specific examples of theorists that use the state of nature device, but that they are not to be confused with the state of nature “in general.”)
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Social Contract Theory of Political Legitimacy:
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the ways in which people form states to maintain social order. The notion of the social contract implies that the people give up sovereignty to a government or other authority in order to receive or maintain social order through the rule of law. It can also be thought of as an agreement by the governed on a set of rules by which they are governed. This gives the agreed upon government the right to rule over the people.
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Origigins of government (compare locke and hobbes)
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locke: Locke's government comes in for a similar reason. Having recognized property rights, it is now important to interpret, apply and enforce the laws property rights. The government exists to do just that without having personal interests or bias.
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Hobbes: Hobbes' government comes when individuals submit themselves to the strongest. The ruler/king gets power over others in exchange for providing them protection and public order.
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Property in the state of nature according to Locke and Hobbes:
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Locke: In the State of nature, people gain property by mixing labor with natural things. There are limits to accumulation of property rights. That is people cannot have more that what they use(the spoilage limitation) leaving enough and as good for everyone else (enough and as good limitation) (Note that we can get out of these limitations for Locke through the “consent” to use money. How do money and consent “imply” an agreement to the unequal possession of the earth?)
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Hobbes:property does not exist until the creation of government.
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Anarchism (as a theory of political legitimacy)
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anarchy states that all government are illegitimate and people want freedom. Man can never take the coercion out of government so government must be abolished. Anarchy claims that any form of government is illegitimate because of the coercive effect that if has on people.
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Autonomy:
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A state of autonomy is a political state in which sovereignty of the public depends on decision of each individual. So, freedom is the basic element in autonomy. Petyr Kropotkin, on his Mutual Aid , argues that human beings are capable of autonomy because of they are likely to be cooperative to each other, which is mutual-aid. So, he believed that autonomy would be best fit to human beings. Accordingly, autonomy would not only secure individual's freedom but also improve human society to more harmonious among its members. (Also, self-government, or the right of self-government; independence note that autonomy could mean the same thing as freedom, though some philosophers would argue that “natural freedom” may, in fact, prevent us from securing our autonomy. Can you guess which one we’ve read would think that?).
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Freedom:
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Freedom, in political philosophy, refers to an idea that no governing force or an authority is able to interfere with individuals' decision making and coerce them to do something. It is an inviolable right which is given to an individual and cannot be deprived of (this is not necessarily true to all philosophers. People with a “thick self” conception of the person would not have this definition of freedom, nor would they recognize it as an inviolable right). According to anarchists, e.g. Emma Goldman, not only human life without freedom is not worth living but also freedom is a way to achieve individual goal. Thus, it should be secured in any case.
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Coercion:
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Coercion, in simplest terms, is the act of forcing a person (or people) to do something that they do not want to do, or otherwise prevent said persons from doing things they want to do.
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Evils of Government according to Anarchism:
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Anarchism notes that all governments are evil due to the coercive powers they enforce upon its citizens. Anarchists believe that any form of coercion is evil, and that because governments are coercive they are therefore evil (Why do they think that coercion is evil? What does it deprive us of?).
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Authority according to anarchism:
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Anarchism suggests that all authority should be questioned because of the likeliness of authority being coercive, and therefore evil. Anarchists believe that the individual should hold total authority over one’s own actions and beliefs, also known as total autonomy.
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3 basic forms of illegitimate authority according to emma goldman:
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Religion (clergy) – Colonizes the human mind, makes humanity small, powerless. b. Property (owners, employers) – Property denies needs. Wealth of the human experience is lost to a grinding schedule. c. Government (legislatures) – State is the sacrifice of human freedoms. All governments are coercive and aim to subordinate their citizens.)
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Real Wealth according to Emma Goldman
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“Anarchism: what it really stands for”, states that the only forms of real wealth available to man are things which “help to create strong, beautiful bodies and surroundings inspiring to live in” (Goldman, 18). By this statement, Goldman argues that the only products of our labor which contribute to our wealth are objects which are beautiful, have utility, and inspire.
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social order vs. social harmony:
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(Social order is something imposed by the state; social harmony is something that is achieved through mutual and voluntary cooperation.)
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Reasons to support anarchism:
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Human nature can only be defined when there are no states; Cooperation must exist, is there not honor among thieves; Competition is only a response to scarcity
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reasons to criticise anarchism:
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Unpractical; Consensus is Impossible; Human nature being what it is, Anarchism is a “Pipe Dream”
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Laws of Nature: (compare locke and hobbes)
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Locke:An obligation to preserve oneself and, when one's own life "comes not in competition," one ought, "as much as he can, to preserve the rest of mankind" and not interfere in others' rights to life, liberty, or property.
-Locke's view appears to be that people will generally follow the law of nature because they are naturally rational and not given to constant war (Note also that it is a god-given law and not a dictate of reason, which means it exists independently of our willingness to “accept it”). |
Hobbes:The first law of nature according to Hobbes is that each person should seek to live with others in peace. The second law of nature is that each person should only retain the right to as much liberty as he or she is willing to allow to others.
-Laws of nature = dictate of reason (which can be derived from the conditions set out in his state of nature and the principle of self-preservation). |
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natural right according to hobbes:
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Hobbes' conception of natural rights extended from his conception of man in a "state of nature". He argued that the natural (human) right was "to use his own power, as he will himself, for the preservation of his own Nature; that is to say, of his own Life; and consequently, of doing any thing, which in his own judgement, and Reason, he shall conceive to be the aptest means thereunto."
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self preservationand its means and consequences according to kropotkin:
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“while the necessary instinct of self-preservation leads man to egotism, nature has supplied a corrective to it by providing man with another instinct - that of sociability. When men are reasonable enough to follow their natural instincts, they will unite across the frontiers and constitute the cosmos. They will have no need of law-courts or police, will have no temples and no public worship, and use no money.”
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self preservation and its means and consequences according to hobbes:
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self-preservation is the most fundamental right. Individuals consent to a government because of self-preservation, however if the government were to order and execution that person would be justified in doing whatever was needed in order to preserve their lives.
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self-preservation and its means and consequences according to locke:
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whatever is needed for self-preservation is justified as long as it does not interfere with the self-preservation of anyone else (because it is necessary to preserve ALL of god’s creations)
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Role of fear in Human Affairs according to hobbes:
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The passions that incline men to peace are fear of death, desire for such things as are necessary for a comfortable living, and a hope by their labor to attain them."
*Mortality plays the role of fear in human affairs (Note also that fear is what gives us the incentive to establish a sovereign and keeps us from rebellion.) |
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Role of fear in Human Affairs according to Locke:
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Fear plays a much smaller role in the theory of Locke—we have little reason to fear one another in the SoN, for example—but what we should be the most fearful of is arbitrary government. How does this fear inform his political theory?)
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Role of mutual assistance in Human Affairs according to Hobbes:
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mutual assistance does not occur because people are primarily interested in their own self-preservation. (Why do we need the state? To aid us in our efforts to mutually assist one another without harming our right to self-preservation).
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Role of mutual assistance in human affairs according to Krypotkin:
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cooperation and mutual aid are as important in the evolution of the species as competition and mutual strife, if not more so. Competition is only a result of scarcity. Mutual assistance is a natural way of life. (Think also the “honor among thieves” argument.)
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state of nature as a state of war (compare hobbes and locke)
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HOBBES: Hobbes believes that people in the state of nature are self-interested. Because we are all self-interested in personal gain, and since we all aspire similar things, we are competitive beings. Because of competition, each person poses as a threat to others, meaning one’s security is another’s elimination. This is why Hobbes believes state of nature is a state of war.
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Locke’s state of war emerges when someone expressly declares intentions to harm someone else. Thus, the state of nature is not necessarily a state of war for Locke, whereas the S of N is ALWAYS a state of war for Hobbes
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State of peace according to
Hobbes: |
the state of peace is what results when we have a convenant that establishes a soverign
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Contract
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mutual transfering of rights
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covenant
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authorizing and giving up ones rights of governing themself to the leviathan on the condition that others do the same
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author
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: An author is a person whose behavior/action is attributed to someone or something else. The author is the person to whom the action is attributed whether or not they are the one who performed the behavior that resulted in the action.
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authority according to hobbes
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To reach a State of Peace, citizens of the state should give up their right to govern themselves. They hand over the right to a higher ruler who will be able to make the law and enforce the law. That is the only true authoritarian in the State of Peace. In the State of Nature, also known as the State of War, no one has authority over anyone. It’s better to fear one person, than to fear everyone. (More specifically, and authority is someone who exercises a right that someone else has bequeathed him/her with.)
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freedom as liberty according to hobbes:
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Freedom means “liberty”. Negative freedom, the freedom to be left alone to do whatever we wish, as long as the law ut of fear or necessity). No government can control all aspects of our lives; so some liberty always remains.
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commonwealth
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One person, of whose acts a great multitude, by mutual covenants one with another, have made themselves every one the author, to the end he may use the strength an d means f them all, as he shall think expedient, for their peace and common defense.” (Hobbes, 109). Only three different forms of commonwealth: a. Monarchy- when the representative is one man *This is best, sovereign power is indivisible; b. Democracy- when an assembly of all that will come together; 3. Aristocracy- when an assembly of a part only, “And though of so unlimited a power men may fancy many evil consequences, yet the consequences of the want of it, which is perpetual war of ever man against his neighbor, are much worse.”
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relationship between liberty, consent, and obligation (hobbes):
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does not prohibit particular activities, we are “at liberty” to pursued them. Even with a government we have a great deal of liberty. People willingly consent to curtail their freedom in order to preserve their lives (frequently o
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soverign power:
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Two ways to attain: a. Natural force, commonwealth by acquisition; men agree amongst themselves to submit to some man voluntarily, commonwealth by institution. The sovereign is the judge of what is necessary for the peace and defense of his subjects. Sovereign power cannot be forfeited. The sovereign,s actions cannot be punished by the subject.
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threats to soverign power:
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Want of absolute power; Private judgment of good and evil; Erroneous conscience; Subjecting the sovereign power to civil laws; Attributing of absolute propriety to subjects; Dividing of the sovereign power.
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the affect of government on human affairs according to goldman and kropotkin:
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Goldman argues that the state/government takes away individual freedom and autonomy and has “enslaved the [human] spirit,” only for its own corrupt benefit. In other words, government conducts and controls every human behavior in efforts of “absolute subordination of the individual.” Governments maintain order by requiring submission and instilling fear. The government creates monopolies and economic inequalities and does not deter crime. Kropotkin: Humans cooperate naturally on their own. Governments affect his “mutual aid” by creating, in essence, something to fight over and thus governments and states are conducive to violence and disagreement. Kropotkin also believes that laws and punishments established and enforced by governments degrade humanity.
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the argument against a divided soverign:
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Premise 1) Humans engage in more conflict when there are more opinions
Premise 2) The more different opinions there are, more likely there is larger number of people Premise 3) There are more people involved in decision making when there is a divided sovereign Conclusion: People are more prone to conflict when we have a divided sovereign. |
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the argument against political rebellion:(hobbes)
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In Hobbes's view the sovereign power of a commonwealth (England's power over its colonies) is absolute and not subject to the laws of its citizens. Obedience will remain as long as the sovereign (England) fulfills the social contract by protecting the rights of the individual. According to these laws Hobbes believed that rebellion is, by definition, unjust. However, should a revolution prove victorious, a new absolute sovereignty would rise up to take the place of the old one
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hobbes case against democracy:
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Hobbes supports absolutist government rather than democracy. This is understood by his rejection of autonomy or self-government. Divided power to Hobbes means a state of war. A democracy is divided power
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Political Cynicism
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1.most governments are designed to benefit those who rule at the expense of those who are ruled.
2.therefore, most governments are not legitimate 3.since most governments are not legitimate, citizens have no obligation to obey political authorities(although frequently forced to do so) |
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origins of government:hobbes
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government comes when individuals submit themselves to the strongest. The ruler/king gets power over others in exchange for providing them protection and public order.
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origins of government: locke
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Having recognized property rights, it is now important to interpret, apply and enforce the laws property rights. The government exists to do just that without having personal interests or bias.
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origins of government: Rousseau
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because of divisions of labor and private property. same as locke, Having recognized property rights, it is now important to interpret, apply and enforce the laws property rights. The government exists to do just that without having personal interests or bias.
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Property in state of nature: hobbes
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property does not exist until the creation of government.
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Property in state of nature: locke
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In the State of nature, people gain property by mixing labor with natural things. There are limits to accumulation of property rights. That is people cannot have more that what they use(the spoilage limitation) leaving enough and as good for everyone else
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Property in state of nature: Rousseau
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naturally equal, property introduces inequality
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The paradox of inequality, and resolution: Rousseau-
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nequality is not “natural” yet it seems to be inevitable
resolution- more equitable distribution of wealth/property |
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Impulse to self-preservation and consequences in the state of nature-Hobbes
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self-preservation is the most fundamental right. Individuals consent to a government because of self-preservation, however if the government were to order and execution that person would be justified in doing whatever was needed in order to preserve their lives.
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Impulse to self-preservation and consequences in the state of nature-
Locke |
whatever is needed for self-preservation is justified as long as it does not interfere with the self-preservation of anyone else (because it is necessary to preserve ALL of god’s creations)
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Impulse to self-preservation and consequences in the state of nature-
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Rousseau-no conflict, best suited for peace in the state of nature. Conflict arises with the state of societies/law
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State of Nature as a State of War
Hobbes |
State of Nature is always a State of War. because of no such thing as justice
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State of Nature as a State of War
Locke |
state of war emerges when someone expressly declares intentions to harm someone else
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State of Nature as a State of War
Rousseau |
NO, it is a social condition. Naturally just need self preservation
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Siminlarities/differences in Rousseau/Goldman/Kropotkin human nature
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“natural” implies a constant. sex, eat, drink
Rosseau- not very much constant in societies, hence not very much natural. government is inevitable Kropotkin-humans naturally commit mutual aid. states prohibit it. |
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Locke create space for critical citizenship
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-gives us the right to examine government, property relations cannot be challenged, majoritarian, cost to high? no rebellion
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Lockes political theory inhibit the prospects for critical citizenship
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property relations cannot be challenged
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right to rebel vs. obligation to rebel
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Right includes the right to use violence! (returning a wrong for a wrong)
Obligation (never return a no violence, wrong for a wrong) |
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Port Huron Statment
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“Almost no students value political activity as citizens”
“We may be the last generation in the experiment with living” -idealism devalued -general apathy(lack of interest) -educational system teaches students to get by -politics without publics -automation and unemployment -militarism -threat of nuclear -“the contradiction of ideals we were taught and realities we experienced” |
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Freedom riders? critical citizens?
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The Freedom Rides, and the violent reactions they provoked, bolstered the credibility of the American Civil Rights Movement and called national attention to the violent disregard for the law that was used to enforce segregation in the southern United States.
critical citizens? when obeying the law perpetuates injustice (king) civil disobedience- public, accept punishment, no violence |
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Thoureau: Critical citizenship
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Obligation to break the law when obeying the law violates the integrity of the individual. Critical Citizenship. Thoureau is enraged by slavery (injustice).
undo respect for law, his idea of a real man would take responsible for what the government was doing. Thoreau is not part of a movement. Was not wanting anything to do with politics, did not pay taxes publicly. Refuse allegiance to the state, |
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origin of government rousseau
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-government did not begin with arbitrary power
-different forms of government owe their origin to different degrees of inequality -originates in a voluntary agreement between people and their rulers, a contract between them -the only reason people were willing to give up individual freedom and be ruled by others was that they saw their rights, property, and happiness better protected under a government rather than anarchy |
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property in the state of nature Rousseau
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-how can property come from anything but manual labor? How can a man consider something his property that he did not make?
-hardly any inequality in the state of nature, but the establishment of property and laws created inequality -sees the private property as a source of inequality, mutual dependence and jealousy |
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Rousseau's state of nature
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-believes locke and hobbes overestimated the likilhood of state of war
-pictures the savage human being as a solitary one, able to live alone -savage man motivated by self-preservation and pity -all men are equal |
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malcolm x's view on legitimacy
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-Lockean themed
-Property ownership: locke said if you do the work you deserve to get the benefits from it -the labor theory of property is evoked -^function of natural law, in particular self preservation -U.S. is violating this particular right of African Americans -Locke believes legitimate political authority comes from consent of society, we are not obliged to obey laws that we did not consent to -the right to representation ^ -Government is instituted to protect citizens (law) equally |
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MLK's view on legitimacy
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-Obligation is to god, god’s law… “I am in Burmingham because injustice is here”
-its not about necessarily individual rights, BUT justice -isn’t evoking the issue of representation -socrates says even though the majority thinks im crazy or wrong, it is my duty to stand up for this (majority of whites/population were for segregation) -principal of legitimacy is not what the authority thinks but instead it is justice -if a king gives a law that is unjust, it is our duty to persuade them whether consent is given or not -Justice=laws that apply equally to everyone -individuals don’t have a right to self-preservations if there is injustice, you are obligated to sacrifice your self-preservation for the sake of justice |
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mlk's view on political rebellion
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-OBLIGATION
-you don’t have a choice -NEVER return a wrong for a wrong- NO violence -returning a wrong for a wrong only escalates the problem |
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malcolm x's view on political rebellion
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-political rebellion is a right: you have a choice
-right to rebellion includes the right to use violence! Returning a wrong for a wrong |
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difference between obligation an right
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-obligation: you don’t have a choice
-right: you have a choice |
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corey robbins view on fear
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“death before dishonor”-the problem for hobbes is that is you do this ^^ you have to define what dishonor means, tough thing to do. Disagreement of virutes is the natural condition. We have to teach people to fear death, because they don’t naturally do it. -need to fear death before you fear anything else in order to have peace “according to cory robbin”
-where there is no common fear, there is no peace |
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corey robbins view on leviathan:
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-leviathan is a tretise, TELLING people to fear death. Disagreement of virtues is the natural condition. We have to teach people to fear death because they don’t naturally do it
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Paradox(contradictory statement) for Rousseau:
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In the state of nature we start out as equal, but we see inequality everywhere
-we’re naturally equal, but socially unequal -reason for this is ultimately property |
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Resolution for Rousseau’s Paradox:
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more equitable distribution of wealth/property
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independence and rousseau
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-as equal we are also independent by nature, property makes more dependent on others
-the wealthier, the further away from the state of nature |
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purpose of government from cynical perspective
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-to benefit the wealthy, protect property
-if you want government to protect everyone, everyone needs to have a piece of the rock (another resolution is nobody have property) |
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obligation of critical citizenship
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-to examine or critically reflect on government
-obligation to civil disobedience |
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civil disobedience
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Resisting unjust laws in a non-violent way, accepting punishment
-attempt to change law via respecting it |
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lockes theory of critical citizenship
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we ultimately retain the right to determine if laws are unjust
-grants the right to examine government |
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locke and right to rebel
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If majority thinks government is legitimate, individuals DO NOT have the right to rebel
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locke as a utilitarian
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- he takes into account costs and benefits. So even if a government is unjust, is the cost is too high..no rebellion (goes for society too)
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how does political cynicism differ from anarchism
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if governments did protect everyone, they could be legitimate. Anarchism believes government is NEVER legitimate
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what is the ballot or the bullet?
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1. Malcolm x’s view that we must pursue peaceful means (ballot); if that doesn’t work then right to punish
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