Political Philosophy

Front 1

1. Using the argument developed in the dialogue Gorgias, present Plato’s reasons for criticizing and rejecting rhetoric as practiced by the sophists.

Back 1

There are two possible aims of rhetoric: the promotion of pleasure and the promotion of good. Plato criticized the sophists because they gained power through rhetoric that promoted pleasure, only hiding the imperfections of the people and not improving their souls. He believed that the aim of political power and the job of the ruler is the improvement of the souls.

Front 2

How does Plato define power? Explain why power thus understood qualifies one for rulership?

Back 2

Political power is justice, or a just or ordered soul. An order soul means that reason is in control of desires. Plato believed that the most reasonable should rule as they are most capable of teaching and improving the souls of the people. Therefore the one with the most ordered soul, or power, is most qualified for rulership.

Front 3

Explain what Plato’s argument about who should rule tells us about his conception of the end of politics.

Back 3

Plato believes that the philosopher should rule, because he is most reasonable, most in control of his desires. The philosopher is most capable of improving the souls of the citizens. This tells us that the end of politics is good, or the perfection of the souls of the people.

Front 4

Define nomos. Define physis. Explain the ways in which the distinction between nomos and physis is relevant for the debate between Callicles and Socrates on the meaning of being “good” and “just.” (Plato)

Back 4

Nomos: tradition and/or written law which determine right and wrong.
Physis: Nature (inherent)
Callicles argues that what is superior in nature

Front 5

Using the dialogue Gorgias, present Plato’s argument about the best way of life. Explain why such an argument has relevance for politics.

Back 5

The best way a life is a life driven by reason. People have different potentials to develop certain parts of their sou; role of politics (and ruler) is to find out what you are meant to develop best.

Front 6

Explain why, in Plato’s view, Socrates is the only statesman in Athens?

Back 6

The Philosopher is most reasonable--ie has the most control over their desires. The statesman's job is to improve the souls of the people, and the most reasonable is the most capable.

Front 7

Present the composition of the household and of the village and explain for which purposes these human associations come into being. (Aristotle)

Back 7

The household rule is a paternal rule over non-equals (children, spouse, servants, etc.) The rule of village is an extension of the household. The source of rule is partnership. The household partnership is inherent from nature (a necessary symbiotic relationship) and therefore not by choice.

Front 8

Explain what kind of partnership the city-state (polis) is and for which purpose (telos) it comes into being. (Aristotle)

Back 8

The partnership of the city-state is political rule, or rule over equals. It comes into being for the sake of living well: leisure.

Front 9

Explain the difference between political/democratic and despotic/household government. (Aristotle)

Back 9

Political government is the rule over equals by choice. Despotic rule is by non-equals without choice.

Front 10

Explain Aristotle’s conception about the relationship between economics (the art of getting wealth) and politics (the art of living well).

Back 10

Aristotle believes that the end of politics is leisure, or living well. Therefore, wealth is a means, not an end. However, leisure can't be attained if factional conflict exists. He argues that factional conflict can be remedies with a strong middle class, as they are most moderate and thus most likely to use reason. Therefore, Aristotle argues that the art of living well is through moderate property acquisition, not unlimited capitalism.

Front 11

Give Aristotle’s definition of the political regime (politeia).

Back 11

The arrangement of a city with respect to it's offices, the governing body.

Front 12

Present Aristotle’s typology of the political regimes and explain the criteria he uses to differentiate between different political regimes.

Back 12

Aristotle presents 6 regimes, 3 just regimes: monarchy, aristocracy, and polity; and 3 corresponding unjust regimes: tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy. The criteria that differentiate the 6 is the number of rulers. He determines which regimes are just or unjust by whether or not the regime is for the common good or for the good of the ruler(s).

Front 13

Present Aristotle’s argument for the best political regime.

Back 13

Idealistically, the best political regime is monarchy ruled by a philosopher King. However, realistically the best political regime is polity because it most practically promotes leisure. This is because the best regime is the one "longest in existence" and thus the most stable. Therefore, the best regime is that most dispels factional conflict through the creation and thriving of a moderate middle class, or the polity. Factional conflict is the opposite of leisure, which is the end of of nature. The middling effects (and in turn stability) of the polity make is the best regime for the advancement of humans towards their end, leisure.

Front 14

Present and explain Aristotle’s argument about the political and cultural role of the middle class.

Back 14

The middle class is embodied by farmers with moderate property. Due to the stability and time constraints of their lifestyle, the farming community will participate in politics moderately and be unlikely to start revolutions or factions. Because factions and insecurity are the opposite of leisure, the rule by the middle class will most advance humans towards their end, leisure, which is educating yourself in the liberal arts.

Front 15

Present Aristotle’s conception about the elements that contribute to the stability of a political regime.

Back 15

Pure forms of regimes are unstable because they tend to not include certain groups of people. He argues for a mixed form a govt. (Oligarchy and democracy—polity). The exclusion of certain groups, or the gap between rich and poor, causes factional conflict. Therefore, one cause of stability in a political regime is the existence and participation of a middle class. Aristotle also argues that good laws, good treatment of outsiders, fear, and education lead to the stability of regimes.

Front 16

Explain Aristotle’s conception of the best way of life.

Back 16

The best way of life is through happiness, or living well (leisure) by acquiring virtue. Virtue is acquiring by either practicing philosophy or practicing politics.

Front 17

Explain Aristotle’s conception about the relationship between politics and philosophy, politics and leisure, war and peace and, based on it, present his view of the chief end of politics.

Back 17

Politics and philosophy: To Aristotle, the highest value is virtue. Virtue is acquired through two activities: philosophy and politics.
Politics and leisure: the end of government is leisure, or an education in the liberal arts
War and peace: We should avoid factional conflict at all costs as it is the opposite of leisure.
Chief end: leisure, happiness, living well.

Front 18

Explain in which ways and for which reasons Machiavelli criticizes the classical (Greek and Christian) conception of politics.

Back 18

Machiavelli believed that there was no inherent set of virtues (liberal pluralism), and that virtue was about keeping people happy, even deceivingly so. Plato and Aristotle believed that virtue was the perfection of the soul. Machiavelli thought that virtue was cultivated through experience and prudence; that it was the capacity to learn how to always be safe and secure. Plato and Aristotle thought that nature was a perfection and had an end. Machiavelli thought that nature was a necessity, that it was hostile and limited man. He thought nature forced us to need nutriment, safety, and glory.

Front 19

Explain Machiavelli’s reason(s) for writing The Prince.

Back 19

The Prince is advice for how to rule for princes. He intended to use modern military history and antiquity to advise the princes how to unite the very divided Italy.

Front 20

Explain how they (his reasons for writing the Prince) connect to his conception of politics and of its ends. (Machiavelli)

Back 20

Machiavelli thought that the goal of politics was security. He thought that although a few wanted people, most people only wanted security. He wrote the Prince to teach how to attain security. He thought thatHistory was a model to see what strategies had worked or failed before, and that you should use that to improve your own strategies to find security.

Front 21

Present Machiavelli’s conception of the qualities a new prince should have in order to gain glory and greatness.

Back 21

He theorizes that glorious power is attained through prowess. He says that all that matters is how you are perceived as a ruler. He permits and suggests deception; that the prince should be a performer, entertaining and distracting, and possibly using their power as a weapon to show spectacles of violence. Additionally, he valued being feared over being loved because fear is a controlling element, whereas love puts the people in control.

Front 22

Explain in what way this conception diverges from the traditional views on the virtues of rulers. (Machiavelli)

Back 22

Machiavelli thought virtue was an extreme, not moderation. Also traditionally, the virtues were seen to be the end or perfection of the soul. This view suggests that virtues are not natural or perfect but only an appearance.

Front 23

Present Machiavelli’s conception of human nature and explain how this conception frames his take on politics and political power.

Back 23

Machiavelli thought that humans were inherently evil. However, he thought that nature could be corrected through good laws and good institutions. Additionally, he thought humans were creatures of destruction and violence, and thus that we should always be in preparation of war and be studying military history because war was inherently impending.

Front 24

Present the main ideas that constitute Hobbes’ conception of human nature.

Back 24

Hobbes believes that the natural inclination of mankind is egoistic individualism, or the "desire of power after power that cease only with death." He believes that our nature dissociates us.

Front 25

Describe the state of nature as seen by Hobbes and explain the role it plays in Hobbes’ argument about the coming into being of society and of government.

Back 25

Hobbes describes the state of nature as a time of unlimited rights. However, when rights are unlimited they compete amongst themselves and cause the repression of freedom instead the rendering of it. In order to have security and stability, therefore, humans must agree to sacrifice some of their rights. The nature of political rule according to Hobbes is association, more specifically, the formation of a covenant among a group of people. In a covenant, the people of a state mutually agree upon a ruler.

Front 26

Define Hobbes’ notions of natural right and natural law.

Back 26

Natural law is the council of reason. Therefore, it is now strictly a law, an authority is necessary to enforce it, and thus all obligations to natural love are artificial.

Front 27

Is Hobbes' state of nature characterized by justice?

Back 27

There is no justice in the state of nature. All laws of nature are laws of reason and need an authority to enforce them. Nature is dissociative.

Front 28

Explain what “good” and “evil” mean for Hobbes and what kind of ‘moral’ portrait of human beings they make possible.

Back 28

Good is what man desires, what his appetite is for, what he moves towards. Evil is the object of hate or aversion. i.e. good and evil are relative to the person; there is no absolute good and evil. Humans are thus ammoral. They need an authority to use reason to enforce a morality. (?)

Front 29

Explain in which ways Hobbes’ conception of good and evil diverges from classical views of such notions.

Back 29

Hobbes' conception of good and evil are relative to the person. He does not believe that there is an absolute good or evil. The only absolute for Hobbes is our equality in our ability to kill each other.

Front 30

Explain what role language plays for Hobbes in politics.

Back 30

Hobbes thought that nothing abstract existed outside language, that the universal is words. He thought that a commonwealth needed good definitions and good methods. He was an empiricist and a nominalist. Nominalist. Breaks down everything by its components. He Understood everything by its composition. He thought nature science should be the frame work of politics; i.e. developing political philosophy through psychological introspection.

Front 31

Explain Hobbes’ view of the relationship between desires and reason and the way this reflects on politics.

Back 31

Hobbes thought that our desires were our movement towards something we love or that was good for us. Reason, he thought, was not the highest faculty, but the method for achieving our desires. We desire commodious living, security, and comfort, and these are achieved through covenant.

Front 32

State and explain the three fundamental laws of nature for Hobbes. Explain the political mechanism that makes their implementation and enforcement possible.

Back 32

1.) To seek peace and follow it.
2.) By all means, we can defend ourselves.
3.) Must perform the covenants made; otherwise in a state of war.

These come into being through covenant, where men exchange their rights to the sovereign and he is an actor for the people

Front 33

Explain what the basis of society and government is for Hobbes.

Back 33

The basis of society and government is covenant. There is an author/actor relationship with the sovereign

Front 34

What is the reason for which the commonwealth comes into being? (Hobbes)

Back 34

The commonwealth comes into to being for security and peace, thus order, and in turn, happiness.

Front 35

Explain in what ways the sovereign can be said to represent the people. (Hobbes)

Back 35

We transfer our rights to the sovereign. We are the authors, and he is the actor. He 'acts' for us.

Front 36

Present Hobbes’ argument about the power of the sovereign.

Back 36

He is the actor on behalf of the people, however the convenant is among the people not with the sovereign; he is above the law. The people cannot change the government, because any form of authority is better than the state of war.

Front 37

Present the rights and the duties that make up the office of the sovereign. (Hobbes)

Back 37

The sovereigns rights are indivisible, incommunicable, and inseparable. He is the judge of what is necessary for the peace and defense of his subjects. He has full authority to make the law and to enforce the law (full power to sanction transactions of law) and the power to appoint judges and police.He has control over what can and cannot be said in public (especially in places like churches): he has the power to control the public debate.

Front 38

Define the notion of liberty as understood by Hobbes.

Back 38

Natural liberty: Not to be hindered to do what you have a will to do
Civil liberty: in all kinds of actions by the laws omitted men have the liberty of doing what their own reasons shall suggest for the most profitable to themselves

Front 39

Present the main tenets of Burke’s conception of political change.

Back 39

Burke supported small, gradual political change within existing structures. He believed that tradition and prejudice should be used in political change. i.e. what we are is an accumulation of our knowledge and is therefore best.

Front 40

Define Burke’s notion of prejudice and explain its moral, socio-cultural, and political role.

Back 40

Prejudices are previously held beliefs and understanding based on experience and tradition.THey are social reason. They have accumulated wisdom. They must be used in times of change because we need experience, and they have been tested.

Front 41

Burke agrees that society is a contract. However, how does he define this contract?

Back 41

Burke saw society of organic. He didn't think you could tear aprat society and reattach it into a new contract. He saw society as attachment between people, that emotions grow over time.

Front 42

Society is for Burke a partnership. Explain the aim of this partnership and sketch any similarities you can discover with Aristotle’s conception of polis.

Back 42

The aim of the partnership is living well through shared responsibility. The partnership is a built up of human connection. Similarly, Aristotle's polis was a connection of affection among the citizens.

Front 43

Explain the moral, social, and political role of the clergy and nobility for Burke. Explain on which grounds he opposes the role of such elites to what he calls the “monied interest” and the “political men of letters,” who (ideologically) directed the French Revolution?

Back 43

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Front 44

Present Burke’s conception of freedom and equality.

Back 44

Burke thought that freedom and equality existed only within a social order. They must be qualified in a social order where yo respect authority.

Front 45

Explain on which grounds Burke criticizes the composition of the French National Assembly, as well as any form of pure democracy.

Back 45

Burke was the father of conservatism, he opposed extremes in political regimes. He supported mixed government, a constitutional monarchy, as the stability secures the rights of the people, and choosing your own ruler relies solely on speculation.

Front 46

Explain Kant’s conception of the benefit/gain/meaning of looking at history as if it has a purpose/end. Name this end.

Back 46

The end of history is a universal cosmopolitan existence through full development of human capacity of reason. (World peace, league of nations.) Find your contribution to the future (hope/incentive). Systematically make judgments. History provides us with hope and helps us attain desirable political circumstances.

Front 47

Explain Kant’s philosophical and political intentions in writing this essay.

Back 47

He intended to regulate how we rationally see the world and history; for us to see the world in a ration/systematic way; and to show us where we are going (direction of history) in order to fully complete ourselves (be most rational/most successful/fulfilling)

Front 48

Explain Kant’s argument about the relationship between nature, history, and reason.

Back 48

End of nature is the full development of reason. History is the movement of humanity towards reason—look back for hope and understanding.

Front 49

Explain the meaning and role of the “unsocial sociability” of man. (Kant)

Back 49

Conflicting desires to live in society vs. live as an individual. Such conflict encourages man to develop his natural capacities.

Front 50

Present and discuss the desires that move human beings in their ongoing competition and social antagonism? (Kant)

Back 50

Honor, power, and property—competition discourages laziness

Front 51

Define the highest purpose of nature, “the highest task which nature has set for mankind” and explain what it takes to fulfill it. (Kant)

Back 51

Create a just constitution: freedom under common law, equality in rational capacity.
Get there is to overcome our nature

Front 52

Explain what Kant means by the idea of cosmopolitan condition.

Back 52

World peace through a league a nations and freedom under common law.

Front 53

Explain the meaning of prophetic history and its political role. (Kant)

Back 53

Helps us attain desirable political consequences...history shows us the direction of human society.

Front 54

Present and explain Kant’s attitude toward the French Revolution. Explain what makes the French Revolution an example of the moral improvement of humanity.

Back 54

Disapproved of revolution. HOWEVER, he saw the FR as a historical sign of human progress. Esp because of the enthusiasm of the spectators towards a common law, the granting of freedoms through a constitution.

Front 55

Present Kant’s argument about the role philosophers should play in contributing to the moral improvement of mankind.

Back 55

Help us see history in a reasonable systematic way—conceive history as a totality. Knowing the end the history provides a moral compass for humanity.

Front 56

Describe the state of nature as seen by Locke and explain the role it plays in Locke’s argument about the coming into being of government.

Back 56

In a state nature, Locke believes men live without a common authority according to their reason. We live by the laws of nature. However, he also recognizes the law of self-preservation which leads to self-interest. The government comes about as an objective impartial judge to interpret and enforce the laws of nature.

Front 57

Explain in what sense people are both free and equal in the state of nature, according to Locke.

Back 57

We are in a state of freedom, but not license, as we are reasonable and abide by the laws of nature. We are equal in our capacity to reason and to understand and enforce the law of nature.

Front 58

Present and explain Locke’s conception of the law of nature.

Back 58

The law of nature is a set of objective moral principles--valid transculturally and transhistorically, independent of subjective will, and discoverable by reason.

Front 59

Present Locke’s argument about the origin of private property.

Back 59

God gave man the earth to all for their common use and enjoyment. However, it was given to man for them to improve it. We own our bodies and thus the products of our labor. As we improve the earth, we invest ourselves. Thus, as we invest ourselves into the earth, that product becomes our property.

Front 60

Explain the origin of government for Locke. Define tacit consent.

Back 60

The origin of government is compact. The people have personal political power that they entrust in the government. Tactic consent is the implication that you consent to the contract of a government if you remain in the territory they control

Front 61

Explain the end for which, in Locke’s view, government comes into being?

Back 61

The end of government is the public good, the preservation of society and as far as this is compatible with the preservation of the whole, the preservation of each member; the protection of private property

Front 62

Name the origin of political power for Locke.

Back 62

Political power is a natural power of individuals: people are naturally self-governing, because they are capable of exercising political power themselves; naturally free because they are not naturally subject to the will of another; and naturally equal because they possess and have the duty and right to exercise political power. Political power of a government is derived from the individuals in the society.

Front 63

Present and explain Locke’s view about government and the powers that constitute it.

Back 63

Government is composed of three relations of power: federative (international relations), executive and legislative (including the judiciary). They have the power to legislate and enforce the laws of nature to protect private property.

Front 64

Define what tyranny is for Locke and then explain when revolution (the dissolution of government) is legitimate in his view.

Back 64

Tyranny to Locke was the exercise of power beyond right. A king makes laws the bounds of his power and the good of the public; a tyrant makes all give way to his own will. Tyranny is anything beyond law. The dissolution of government is legitimate when the government breaks the contract, i.e. is not achieving the end purpose for which it was created.

Front 65

Explain the role labor plays, in Marx’s view, in the development of human beings, as individuals and as a species.

Back 65

Labor is not only a means to satisfy material needs, it is also the expression of a fundamental human drive for self-development and self-realization.

Front 66

Define and explain the many facets of the notion of alienation. Explain why alienation is a condition that needs to be transcended, left behind. (Marx)

Back 66

The worker is alienated from his labor has he has no control over the final product and its distribution. This is a problem because the worker cannot excercise their uniquely human capacity as species-being; they cannot be creative. Additionally, the alienation of labor separates workers from each other, as they are forced to compete with one another, seeing only commodities instead of common interests.

Front 67

Explain the connection between alienated labor and private property. (Marx)

Back 67

Marx believes that the alienation of labor eliminates human activity, so by eliminating private property he intends to re-value conscious activity over commodity.

Front 68

Explain the connection between money and alienation. (Marx)

Back 68

As the worker is alienated from his labor, he becomes a slave to it. Marx observes that the only form of appropriation in his modern society is property. Such attitude valuing property, he argues, has encouraged the purely selfish behavior of wage-labor exploitation. Marx believes that, because man is alienated from his labor, the valuing of private property has caused the bourgeoisie to exploit the proletariat, or working class, for their labor, dehumanizing them. I.e the interestes of the capitalist is profit so he will cut the wages of the laborer who has no choice because he is enslaved.

Front 69

Explain what Marx means by the positive transcendence of private property (communism as humanism).

Back 69

Marx envisions a de-emphasis ob labor and consumption and a re-emphasis on free, conscious activity. This will provided more opportunities for creativity and individualism, or man as species-being.

Front 70

Explain Marx’s (re)definition of being rich and of being poor in the context of communism as humanism.

Back 70

To be rich is to be endowed with all the senses. You receive self-actualization through the objectification of your work.

Front 71

Present the main tenets of Marx’s discussion of modernity in the Communist Manifesto.

Back 71

At first Marx expresses the successes of capitalism. It developed industry and improved communication. At first the middle class was revolutionary. Now, however, it is an exploitation of the working class, it is slave labor.He saw capitalism as a set towards the end of humanity which is communism. Now it is time for a new class to be the class of revolution.

Front 72

Explain the historical and political role of the bourgeois, its revolutionary impact, and its limits. (Marx)

Back 72

The bourgeois was at first revolutionary in the industrial revolution. However now their only interest is profit, causing the exploitation of the proletariat.

Front 73

Explain the historical and political role of the proletariat. (Marx)

Back 73

The lowest class, the working class. Have now been alienated from their labor, thus become enslaved by it. Marx suggests the creation of a proletariat party followed by a revolution, where they are the ruling class.

Front 74

Define class struggle and then explain some of the main features of Marx’s view of politics.

Back 74

The struggle between two economic classes defined by their means of production: those who sell their labor, and those who gain from the wealth generated by the laborers. Politics is the product of the dynamics of class relations.The state is a reflection/expression and result of class division.