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156 Cards in this Set

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1. politics
the making of collective decisions for a group of people (I.E. a country, a family, a business, etc.) through the use of power. Politics can include the use of persuasion or force. The term “politics” can have several meanings. First, the general term to mean interrelationships among people: “Office politics”. Second, the narrowed specification of governmental politics: “I’m going into politics”.
1. power
the ability of one person to get another person to do what s/he wants. The use of power can include force, but may be a simple exercising of peer pressure. There is manifest power” which is the situation of one act begetting another act. There is also “implicit power”, which is the obeying of force through an unspoken situation, for example, holding a door open for someone, even though there was never any communication from one person to another.
1. collective decision
a decision made for a group of people. The hallmark of politics, because politics is collective decision making through the use of power.
1. agenda setting
though difficult to set down or define, agenda setting is an explicit excise of power. He who sets the agenda has a tremendous amount of power. For example, the chairman of a department who is in charge of deciding what issues will and will not receive attention wields a lot of power.
1. implicit and manifest power
two types of power. Manifest power is the general sense of power; one act begets another act. For example: the speed limit is set at 35 mph, and motorists either obey the law or receive a ticket. Implicit power is somewhat more elusive. In an exercise of implicit power, the person obeying understands (or thinks they understand) the other person’s actions, and so obeys, without any measurable order from the other person. For example: a person opens a door for another person even though there is no expressed order. In this scenario, the person for whom the door is held open is exercising implicit power over the person holding the door without order or expressed desire.
1. myth, as a basis of power
the use of popularized myths as a device for expanding power. A ‘myth’ in this sense is a benign image of a country’s founding. For example, images of Christopher Columbus heroically exploring a wild but beautiful new land, George Washington chopping down a Cherry Tree, or Abe Lincoln’s childhood in a log cabin are all examples of stories nurtured about a nation’s birth. Myths encourage emotional attachment and beget nationalism.
1. coercion, as a basis of power
One basis of power – using force tactics. Importanto that coercion is not effective on its own; cannot be the only tactic for wielding power – it’s too costly, too inefficient. Therefore, governments must use other basises of power like nationalism, etc.
1. state
a legal construction. A state is a legal entity having sovereignty. Generally speaking, a state is considered a state if it has definable borders that, once crossed, it’s called an invasion. A relatively recent conception, the state developed with modern industry and still serves to promote a national identity.
1. sovereignty
the generally accepted monopoly to the right to manage power over a territory, right to manage how the power is exercised. However, may still be influenced from outside. There is a general acceptance of sovereign power. Ultimate source of authority in a society. Highest and final decision maker in a community.
1. nation
a group of people who share a certain bond or identity, especially based on a share language, often, but not necessarily a shared territory. For example, the Palestinians or the Kurdish people are a nation, but don’t necessarily have a geographical claim: a state.
1. nationalism
ethnic identity. When a people recognize themselves as part of a ‘nation’, they develop a sense of nationalism. Though intangible, nationalism is very influential, especially in wartime; a sense of fighting ‘for God and country’. Most states encourage nationalism (use of flags, mottos, etc.)
1. nation-state
a group of people who share a sense of national identity (a nation) living in a legally recognized geographical territory (a state). Most states encourage nationalism (use of flags, mottos, etc.) It is useful to unite nations/nationalism and a state. For example, part of the effectiveness of Napoleon’s fighting force came from his encouragement of nationalism. Conflicts often arise when state and nation are not combined, for example, the Israel-Palestine conflict of today.
1. Jared Diamond’s interpretation of the development of states
Jared Diamond lived in Papa New Guinea. In the tribal areas – most undeveloped areas, the people needed a reason to not kill each other. With each technological development, population increased. As a society grew in population, it became a more complex society with communication and currency and eventually, a governing body. Bands > tribes > chiefdoms > states.
1. collective or public goods
a service or good provided to everyone - can’t be parceled out. National security is an example of a public good; if it’s available to one person, it’s available to all people. The problem with collective goods is when they are supported on a voluntary basis. It is not in a person’s personal interest to support something which could be had for free.
1. contemporary challenges to the state
as the world progresses, the role of the state diminishes and there is pressure from above and below to modernize. Above: a globalized economy challenges the necessity of a state. Also, problems that are trans-state like the environment make state-by-state policies less relevant. Below: pressures for regionalization/ less centralization, especially on social, religious and educational policies.
1. layered sovereignty
There is an emerging system of layered sovereignty in the world today. The use of the system of federalism, which is the sharing of sovereign powers is a pressure from below the state. There is also pressure from above a state. One example of this is regional integration like the European Union; many states under one governing structure. Also IGOs like WHO or WTO link many states and share sovereignty.
1. ideology
a logically, interconnected set of ideas which are usually organized around a core value. For example, if your core ideological value is to value life above all else, you would likely oppose the death penalty and abortions, etc. Ideologies are necessary in dealing with the complexity of world politics. A recognized ideology gives consistency and credibility to an argument. Also, ideologies are useful in winning alliances by broadening an argument. Ideologies vary across individuals.
1. liberalism
arose out of the Middle Ages as a response to a changing commercial, social, industrial world. The core value of liberalism is individual self-development. Liberalism operates on the assumption that we develop our capacities best when we have responsibility for our own choices. From liberalism comes an appreciation for freedom of expression, suspicion of concentrated power, laissez-faire economics, disestablishment of church/freedom of religion, and a democratic governing system
1. conservatism
response to the developing ideas of liberalism. The core value of conservatism is social justice and order. Conservatism works to maintain community values and believes that the community is benefited by a set of shared values, ex: family. Conservatism considered liberalism to be a lonely, amoral society of individuals instead of a community.
1. socialism
workers gravitated towards liberalism because of democracy and individual rights, but were still searching for economic equality. The core value of socialism is equality (both social and economic). Socialism operated on the assumption that the only way to achieve economic equality is to have the state control the economy (possibly by nationalizing the industry) and then workers would control the state. In 1918, the czarist government was overthrown and the first socialist governing system was established in Russia.
1. fascism
more of a style of government than an ideology. True fascists valued a national greatness, to include some sort of ‘harking back’ to a Golden Age. Politics centered on a personalistic leader and a lot of pageantry. Disliked the emphasis on free expression in liberalism and the aristocracy and religion of conservatives. Fascism was isolated to a few states: Germany, Italy and Spain. The style in its truest sense does not exist today, and the term is instead used to insult the political right, to describe militant Islamic groups and terrorists.
1. communism
is different from socialist parties only in approach. The core values are the same, but tactics and how radical a change is sought is different. It’s a system based on holding all property in common.
1. American "liberalism" and "conservatism"
Liberalism (in its original sense) is the core of all American ideologies, composing the conventional American ‘freedoms’: freedom of speech, freedom of religion, etc. American “liberalism” combines the emphasis on individual freedoms with the concern for equality. American “conservatism” combines the economic principles of liberalism and religious values. American ideologies are not centered on intellectual consistency so much as party identities and coalition forming.
1. political roles
a social position defining through a set of expectations how you should participate socially, or in politics, how you should participate in decision-making. Our roles are defined by those around us and these roles tell us what we can and cannot do. Roles are defined formally, in part, by rules and laws. Also, informally, by the people around us.
1. "delegate" and "trustee" roles of representatives
because the Constitution provides a general framework for government and not specific case-by-case scenarios, there is some room for interpretation about the role of a representative. Some representatives have seen their role as “delegate” of the people, which implies that the representative is the voice of his specific constituents and so parrots all their opinions. A “trustee” would see it her role to ingest information and vote based on her own viewpoint (as the most informed) instead of on that of her constituents. Ultimately, the role of a representative must be defined by the individual representative.
1. fiduciary roles
when one acts on behalf of another person’s interest. In the modern world, more and more fiduciary roles are developing, and they generally trump other roles. For example, if a child is orphaned, their inheritance is put in a bank, and the bank officials have a fiduciary responsibility to the interest of the orphan. Fiduciary roles are not necessarily financial. For example, President Truman dropped an atomic bomb on Japan in response to his fiduciary role and it wasn’t viewed as an atrocity because he didn’t do so with personal motives, but with the interest of his country at stake.
1. civil disobedience
is publicly disagreeing with the actions of your state. Civil disobedience usually implies committing small illegalities and expect some minor punishment. Civil disobedience often comes out of roles in conflict, for example, if a person’s role as humanitarian conflicts with their role as a civilian, they may feel pulled towards civil disobedience. Gandhi and Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. are both famous for their civil disobedience.
1. rights
entitlements or claims based on grants by the state: rights to social security, freedom of speech, etc. Because rights are granted by the state, they can also be taken away.
1. natural rights
the belief that, by virtue of the fact that you are human, you are entitled to certain rights beyond government control, I.E. “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness”. They are beyond the capacity of the state to define, which requires a belief in some power above human beings, above the power of the state. Natural rights are often evoked when challenging authority. John Locke.
Rawls' Veil of Ignorance
John Rawls believed that if we get away from our personal influences, we would all understand what is just. He advocated we approach issues from behind a “veil of ignorance”, that is, that we would assume ignorance about the conditions we would be born into. Rawls’ theory was that if a person didn’t know what gender they were going to be, what color their skin would be or what economic standing they would be born into, their politics would be much more accepting, and he concluded that liberalism would be the system we found most appealing.
1. market mechanisms for collective choice
Market mechanisms are a way of making collective decisions. Any decision can be made with market mechanisms, for example, the decision of the evolution of a language is made by governments. In the USA, market mechanisms are employed which means that the language evolves however it is spoken and words of the vernacular are accepted as part of the language based on the principles of a free market. This allows for some inequality, however, in that there is an unequal distribution of wealth. In the example of the language evolution, there are some people who have more public platforms, like politicians and celebrities, and so they have a greater influence on how the language evolves.
1. commande mechanisms for collective choice
Command mechanisms are a way of making collective decisions. Any decision can be made with command mechanisms, for example, the decision of the evolution of a language are made by governments. In France, command mechanisms are employed which means there is a commission to decide what words are and are not part of the French language. Command mechanisms are inefficient because it’s logistically difficult – can never be as efficient as personal decisions. In the example of language evolution, it is likely that government will declare some words part of the language and others not, a decree that may or may not be followed by the people of the country.
1. incentive incompatibility
is a basic conflict of interest. For example, in many businesses or organizations, a department is budgeted a certain amount of money to buy supplies. At the end of the fiscal year, if a department hasn’t spent all its money, it is understood that the department didn’t need all its allocated money, and so their budget will be cut for the next year. This creates obvious incentive incompatibility. Inevitably, the department will furiously spend all its money just before the end of the fiscal year.
1. natural monopolies
velop as a result of a command system, even within a predominately market system. Often telephone companies, cable service providers, light and power companies, etc. will serve an entire area. Governments allow the monopoly to exist because it’s more efficient to have a monopoly – it’s impractical for two energy countries to lay different pipelines next to each other.
1. externalities
The effects of a spill-over. A person who makes a decision does so on the basis of costs and effects to themselves, but these results spill over onto other people who don’t have a say in the possible costs and effects. For example, a factory owner has certain costs (cleaning his smokestack) and benefits (revenues from the factory). If the factory owner decides it is too costly to clean the smokestack, he will see results of that (a dirty factory), but more importantly, the externalities (dirty smoke) will affect many people. Externalities are not necessarily a bad thing: externalities of a college education.
1. substantive jusitice
basic principle: Establish just classes and then treat like cases alike and differing cases differently. These classes can be based on: desert – people are categorized by what they contribute and deserve; need – people are categorized by what they need, not by their contributions; equality – essentially, a denial of classes.
1. procedural justice
trumps substantive justice. Procedural justice is used to discourage arbitrary policy, for example, racial profiling. The result of procedural justice is due process, in which a case is thrown out if procedures aren’t followed. It is in the interest of society to value procedural justice because it is important that government is constrained to a procedural process.
1. arbitrary policy
people are treated in ways they couldn’t predict or understand by a publicly-stated general principle. Procedural justice is enabled to discourage arbitrary policy. For example, if a law was passed that made it illegal for people with blonde hair to drive a car, it would NOT be arbitrary policy. Though it is wrong, it is a publicly stated principle. However, if a police officer were to just suddenly start pulling over every blonde they saw, that would be considered arbitrary policy.
1. problem of proper classifications for questions of justice
the question of how a person decides what is proper classification. Is it proper, for example, to classify someone based on their gender. What qualifies like cases as alike and different cases as different.
1. democracy
rule by the people. All sorts of systems can establish democracy: representative democracy, referenda, citizen juries, etc. Requires that members subscribe to “The Democratic Bargain”, where all the powerful parts of society agree they will lose power/control because they are confident that they will be able to gain power later. For example, one social class will not turn over power to another class if they believe that ruling party will abolish fair voting. Democracy is founded in trust and tradition.
1. the democratic bargain
all the powerful parts of society agree they will lose power/control because they are confident that they will be able to gain power later. For example, one social class will not turn over power to another class if they believe that ruling party will abolish fair voting. Democracy is founded in trust and tradition.
1. Przeworski’s view of the relationship between democracy and prosperity
It’s not an issue of wealthy countries being more likely to become a democracy, but rather that wealthy countries have a much higher likelihood of maintaining a democracy. There is a direct, mathematical correlation between the amount of money a country has and the likelihood that it will sustain a democracy.
1. third wave of democratization
from 1974 – 1991, when many countries turned to democracy, some for the first time, others returning. These countries include Greece, many African and Asian countries, as well as the fall of the U.S.S.R.
1. military government
governments ruled by their military. There are few military governments because states usually encourage a role of military that would work against this – line of command. Military governments often struggle with being viewed as legitimate from other countries. Often, military leaders are not very skilled politically and there is little provision for factional conflict, communication about problems. Because military leaders often gain power through force, it is imperative to their authority that they continue to rule by force, which causes certain unrest in the nation. Also, perhaps most importantly, there is no plan for succession, so many military governments fail when the general in power dies. Ex: Burma, Pakistan
1. one-party states
Often, one-party states have their origins as military states, coup d’états, our revolution. They are different from military states in that ‘a military state’ implies that those in power are uniform-wearing military men, whereas one-party states may only be grounded in military principles. One-party states are often more effective than military governments because military governments often are self-contained and do not have members of the party in society. They can embrace broad parts of society, factional conflicts, etc. They also often have a better plan for leadership succession, a better claim to legitimacy.
1. political culture
the beliefs, preferences, definitions, assumptions, etc. that a people share about politics and is important to politics, but difficult to address. Political culture gives us a context for understanding politics, but not a lever. For example, American political culture is very individualist, idealist, stressing a sense of progress – helping the future generation, with a pinch of cynicism. Political culture is often slow to change (ex. de Tocqueville’s description of America is very similar to the America of today), with the exception of a few cases (ex. Germany, after WWII).
1. Lisa Wedeen's interpretation of Asad's domination of Syria
Asad’s “cult of personality” – worship of a leader. The Syrians worship their leader because they are supposed to, and do little acts of disobedience, but there are no outright acts of rebellion. Government control of rhetoric and press sets tone for country and allows for control. “Spectacles make power palpable, publicly visible, and practical. Asad’s cult, even when it is not believed, is thus a powerful, albeit ambiguous, mechanism of control.”
1. secularization in Europe and America
as countries become rich, they abandon religion.
1. Inglehart/Norris take on conflict between Islam and the West
secularization: as countries become rich, they abandon religion.
1. political socialization
the process by which a culture is reproduced; is learned – is “taught”. Many studies suggest that the age at which most people learn socialization is in their late teens or twenties. There are a variety of ways a person can learn their political socialization: through their family is probably the most effective, through school and their peer group, through the media.
1. agents of socialization
The vehicles through which a person learns political socialization. An agent of socialization needs to be a trusted, relevant source. Perhaps the most effective agent of socialization is through a person’s family. This may be in conflict, however, with the fact that the age at which a person learns political socialization (late teens, twenties) is precisely the same age at which a person establishes independence from their family. Young people are also heavily influenced by the views of their peer group. Less effective, but still influential is the environment of a person’s school or the media.
1. ademocratic functions of elections
nothing to do with whether it’s democratic. Ademocratic elections don’t fulfill democratic functions (choice of candidates, referenda) but instead only serve to confirm decisions and build support for a regime. Often the candidate has been chosen, but elections are large ceremonial events, full of pageantry.
1. referendum
the people make the ballot proposal. Direct proposal of a constitutional amendment.
1. main effect of SMDP v. PR
Size of party system – how many parties. Mediated by even/uneven distribution geographically. If concentrated in one geographical area, small parties can do ok. Also mediated by district size.
1. side effect of SMDP v. PR
better turnout in elections with PR, lots of turnover after an election in SMDP system, indv’l representation with SMDP.
1. STV (single transferrable vote)
instant runoff. Allows for greater party diversity within SMDP. Voters don’t have to worry about ‘wasting their vote’ because they are allowed a 1st and 2nd choice. Candidate getting the least number of votes is thrown out the their votes are attributed to the voters’ second choice. Allows small parties, over time, to grow larger.
1. government
consists of institutions responsible for making collective decisions for society. This can include the police, the armed forces, public servants and judges. More narrowly, government refers to the top political leaders within such institutions.
1. Thomas Hobbes' case for government
government provides us with protection from the harm that we would otherwise inflict on each other in our quest for gain and glory. Rulers are instituted to keep us in check. The people agree to set up an absolute government to escape from a life that would otherwise be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short”
1. authority
is the right to rule. Authority creates its own power, so long people accept that the person in authority has the right to make decisions. Where power is the capacity to act, authority is the acknowledged right to do so. Authority exists when subordinates acknowledge the capacity of superiors to give legitimate orders.
1. traditional authority
Max Weber suggests that traditional authority is based on ‘piety for what actually, allegedly, or presumably has always existed’. Traditional rulers do not need to justify their position; rather, obedience is required as part of the natural order. Ex: Monarchs rule because they have always done so.
1. charismatic authority
Max Weber suggests that charismatic authority spurns history. The charismatic prophet looks forward, convincing followers that the promised land is within reach. Such leaders are obeyed because they inspire their followers, who credit their savior with exceptional and even supernatural qualities. The governing system usually dies out with the leader.
1. legal-rational authority
Max Weber suggests that in legal-rational authority, obedience is owed to rules rather than individuals, resulting in government based on regulations, not tradition or charisma. Ex: a public official acts according to rules, guidelines, implementing explicit rationality. A state based on law.
1. legitimate system of government
one based on authority: that is, those subject to its rule recognize its right to make decisions. When a regime is widely accepted by those subject to it, we describe it as legitimate. Authority = official, legitimacy = regime.
1. failed state
the state’s inability to perform its key role of monopolizing the legitimate use of force within its territory. They are breeding grounds for crime.
1. totalitarian regime
non-democratic rule. Totalitarian regimes ‘demand controlled participation by the people in support of the supposed transformative goals of the supreme leader.’ Only really observed today in Islamic theocracies. Typically, government takes the form, not of a single dominant leader, but rather an elite group such as a military council.
1. deliberate democracy
a perspective on democracy which emphasizes the value of public discussion among free, equal and rational citizens in giving legitimacy to decisions and in enhancing their quality.
1. representative democracy
citizens elect a parliament and, in presidential systems, a chief executive. These representatives are usually held to account at the next election.
1. liberal democracy
a version of representative democracy in which the scope of democracy is limited by constitutional protection of individual rights, including freedom of assembly, property, religion, and speech. Free, fair and regular elections are based on universal (or near universal) suffrage.
1. IGOS
bodies whose members include states. IGOs are established by treaty and usually operate by consent, with a permanent secretariat. Can include single purpose entities, regional organizations (EU) and universal bodies (UN). Help to share information and coordinate policies. IGOs contribute to the blurring of cultural barriers and are one of the main sources of pressure from above a state, making the function of a state obsolete.
1. NGOS
are private institutions with members or groups drawn from more than one country. Ex: International Red Cross, Greenpeace, Save the Children, the Catholic Church. Though they are private groups, NGOs often help to execute the policy set in place by IGOs (like the UN). NGOs often become very influential in the country (poor, low development) they serve, often inhibiting the maturation of a local government and creating dependency in the community, making it hard to leave.
1. military coup d'etat
is a seizure of political power by the armed forces or sections thereof. Those coups can be violent and unwelcome, some just replace one military regime with another and there is relatively little loss of life. Many coups occurred between the 1960s and the 1980s, many in Sub-Saharan Africa.
1. theocracy
is a government by religious leaders. In ancient Israel God’s laws were expounded and applied by holy men. Although most Islamic countries separate religious and political roles, the regime established in Iran after the overthrow of the Shah in 1979 is a recent example of a theocracy. The Iranian constitution ‘strictly enforces traditional, male-dominated Islamic codes, the ayatollahs permeate society in a manner reminiscent of totalitarian regimes.’
1. PRI
Institutional Revolutionary Party is the dominate party in Mexico. Founded in 1929 to reign in political machines, the party is divided into 3 groups: workers, peasants, popular/public groups. Repressed oppositions and manipulated election results, ‘becoming one of the world leaders of election fraud.’
1. social capital
refers to a culture of trust and cooperation which makes collective action possible and effective. Putnam argues that the most successful regions have a positive political culture. The least effective governments are found in regions lacking any tradition of collaboration and equality. Political culture takes many years to develop, and a foundation of trust is grounded in centuries of positive social capital makes it easier to maintain.
1. postmaterialism
is a commitment to radical quality of life issues (such as the environment) which can emerge, especially among the educated young, from a foundation of personal security and material affluence. First established in the wealthy democracies like Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany, and less popular in the poorer democracies like Greece. Experience of higher education is the best single predictor of a postmaterial outlook. Generally seen as the “liberal outlook”, postmaterialism is born out of a society of peace, affluence and security.
1. Huntington’s clash of civilizations
Clash of cultures between Islam and the West. Huntington argues that the contemporary division is cultural or civilizational rather than religious. He divides the world into 7 or 8 major civilizations, to include “western” and “Islamic” and suggests that cultures based on civilizations rather than countries will become the leading source of conflict in the 21st century. Pg 116-119
1. social movements
or “popular movements” consist of people from outside the mainstream who come together to seek a common objective through an unorthodox challenge to the existing political order. Social movements serve to question the legitimacy and decisions of the government, using protest acts including demonstrations, sit-ins, boycotts and strikes. These acts, though potentially illegal, are considered “political”. Similar to interest groups in that they focus on a single issue, and also do not seek state power. They are unlike interest groups in that their objective is as much social change as legislative change.
1. clientelism
denotes politics substantially based on patron-client relationships. The patron provides protection to a number of low-status clients who, in exchange, offer their unqualified allegiance and support. This is a major technique in controlling participation in authoritarian states. Especially in low-income countries, personal client-patron relationships are the main instrument for bringing people into contact with formal politics.
1. civil society
consists of those groups which sit above the personal realm of the family but beneath the state. The term covers public organizations such as labor unions, interest groups, etc. Civil societies provide opportunities for people to participate in non-governmental (though not necessarily anti-governmental) activities, and so were outlawed under communist rule.
1. relative deprivation
arises when people believe they are receiving less than they feel they are entitled to. This perceived deficit may be relative to past times, to an abstract standard of justice, or to the rewards accruing to other groups. Comparison of some kind is integral to the idea and breeds a sense of resentment which contributes to political discontent. “The most explosive situation arises when a period of improvement is followed by a decline in the ability of the regime to meet rising demands.” This creates a gap between expectations of continued improvement and the reality of decline.
1. political participation in Russia
Good voter turnout, but cynical about personal effects on gov’t, capacity of an individual. General distrust of political parties and religious organizations.
1. gerrymandering
– the art of drawing seat boundaries to maximize the efficiency of a party’s support. “In the US, partisan districting has become a fine art… enabling incumbents to choose their voters. The only way to prevent this is to cede control to an independent organization.
1. indirect election
occurs when office-holders are elected by a body which has itself been chosen by a wider constituency. Ex: the Electoral College. Were invented to act as buffers against the whims of the people.
1. referendum
a vote of the electorate on an issue of public policy such as a constitutional amendment. The vote may be binding or consultative. Direct democracy. In some countries, referendums can be initiated by citizen petition, which adds popular influence to the political agenda itself. Referendums seem to increase voters’ understanding of the issue, and also may serve to inform the politicians.
1. initiative
a procedure which allows a certain number of citizens (typically 10%) to initiate a referendum on a given topic. Referendums can be initiated by citizen petition in some countries (New Zealand, Switzerland, etc. Also, in some states like California.)
1. recall
allows a certain number of voters to demand a referendum on whether an elected official should be removed from office. A vote is initiated by a petition signed by (typically 25%) votes cast in the previous election. In 2003 there was a recall vote in California on Gov. Gray Davis. He was eventually replaced by Gov. Arnold Schwartzenegger.
1. party identification
is a long term attachment to a particular party which anchors voters’ interpretations of the remote world of politics. Party identification is often inherited through the family and reinforced by the elector’s social environment, for example, co-workers, classmates, etc. In the USA, in order for a person to be able to vote in the primaries, they must register under a party, which teaches voters to think of themselves in terms of party.
1. partisan dealignment
refers to the weakening of bonds between a. electors and parties and b. social groups and parties. As partisan dealignment grows, voter turnout has fallen, party membership has reduced and the cleavages between classes of the early post-war decades have decayed.
2. Political Party
an organization of people whose primary purpose is to put a particular set of people into office, gain control of state. Originally intended by politicians to be an electoral machine, the structure (eggy) was found to be incredibly adaptable. The political party structure serves as a conduit for communication and an exercise of power, as a means of mobilizing the population, for recruitment and socialization of future leaders, etc. Political parties are more formally organized almost everywhere outside of the United States. Political parties are different from interest groups in that their main goal is winning elections, whereas interest groups publish literature, lobby, etc.
2. Michels’ dilemma of democracy/Iron Law of Oligarchy
The Iron Law of Oligarchy says that no matter how democratic or with what good intentions a party begins, it will inevitably turn into an oligarchy. The first piece is that the weak are oppressed, and so organize as a way to beat the oppressors but in doing so, the organization creates a new group of oppressors. The organization will no longer serve the interests of the weak and the party will not follow what it said it would. Ex: Animal Farm. One way Michels suggested combating this is to allow for the passage of time. If change occurs over a long period of time, it is less likely to become corrupt.
2. levels of analysis
Any question in the social sciences can be assessed at various levels of aggregation. We call these “levels of analysis”. For example, we can look at issues at the individual level, group level, state level, etc. This is important because what looks like the same process can actually produce different results. For example, in the 1970’s there was a campaign to increase fluoride levels in the water. Though studies showed that well-educated individuals supported the campaign, many cities with a highly educated population (such as Ann Arbor, MI) were not in favor of the increase. This paradox was only visible through different levels of analysis.
2. dominant party system
where one party wins every. It is different from a one-party system in that elections are held and other parties aren’t kept from organizing but, for whatever reason, another party never wins. Dominant parties often arise under a charismatic leader after a period of crisis, for example: Gandhi in India, PRI in Mexico. This party will dominate for approximately two generations and then a competitive democracy will re-establish.
2. two-party system
allowed to exist under a SMDP system. Because of the nature of the two party system, one party always has a majority and doesn’t allow for coalitions. This can have positive results, but forces all viewpoints to be jammed into two parties, which often yields a less clear focus.
2. multi-party system
allowed to exist under a PR system. Because of the nature of the multi-party system, many parties have voice and coalitions are very common. This allows for parties with very specific interests to exists, for example, the Christian Democrats, the Green Party, etc.
2. constitution with a small “c”
the less important, informal rules of a country. For example, the US Constitution + the bylaws of the US senate and house + all Supreme Court decisions + traditions = constitution. The UK doesn’t even have a Constitution, but is governed by a constitution: a series of documents, laws, and understandings over the years. There are some advantages to the informality, but it requires consensus trust and relies on all members of government understanding and behaving according to their role.
2. constitutionalism
the understanding that rules are not manipulated for individual advantage, and are followed. No state has perfect constitutionalism. Ex: the Constitution of the Soviet Union was mostly for show; had no constitutionalism.
2. federalism
sharing of the exercise of sovereignty. A federal state is one with formally divided implementation of government. Federalism is often implemented in states with strong geographic subdivisions (ex: ancient Greece) or in states that are considered “difficult” because of their size (US, India, Russia) or intensity I.E. if one part of the state is Christian, the other part Islamic, etc. (Nigeria, Pakistan). Federalist states are decentralized compared with unitary systems.
2. parliamentary system
in a parliamentary government, only the legislature is elected. It [parliament] designates the premier (Prime Minister, Chancellor, etc.) and cabinet, often from its own members. Cabinet serves at pleasure of parliament because they are essentially the same body. There is no system of checks and balances, no supreme court to act as mediator between the two branches.
2. "Westminster" system of government
A form of Parliamentary government in which the majority and their cabinet run everything and alternative modes of power are not tolerated. Representation is based on accountability and decision making very clean and concise. The parliament of the UK is the best example of a “Westminster” system.
2. “consensus” system of parliamentary government
is a system of government with a spirit of involving all parties, whether they’re in the cabinet or not. Much of the work of policy-making occurs outside parliament, across parties and interest groups. Politics operates without partisanship. Some consensual systems include the governments of some Scandinavian countries, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, etc. Under a consensual parliamentary government, there are less abrupt shits in policy when party control changes and greater voter satisfaction. It is hard to get a consensual parliamentary government to respond to new issues as they arise, and of course, hard to establish
2. France’s solution to the problem of stable parliamentary government
France established a semi-presidential government by adding a Presidency to their original parliamentary government. They also added many formal rules to their parliamentary government so that the cabinet has stricter control over the government. The president is elected separately from the Parliament. If the President is from the majority party then the President runs things and the Prime Minister acts as the conduit between the President and the Parliament. If the President is not from the majority party, then the Prime Minister is more powerful. Generally, the President handles national defense and foreign policy.
2. Cabinet, in parliamentary government.
The cabinet is put together by the Prime Minister. The cabinet is composed of members of Parliament and they oversee bureaucracy.
function of rank and file members in parliamentary government
Most members of parliament are there because they’re using it to get to a ministry position. Some of the members of parliament will form a “shadow parliament”, which is composed of the top members of the minority party. The rank and file members of Parliament vote as they’re told, according to party policies and have very little influence.
2. how stable parliamentary government is achieved
Stable government is achieved through strict party discipline and formal rules. This can result in a very rigid governmental structure such as France’s or as a consensual government such as the Scandinavian countries.
2. committees in parliaments
Generally, weak. In “Westminster” parliamentary governments, committees have practically no power, and their job is to ensure a careful reading of laws before they’re passed. This is very different from committees in presidential systems, where committees have explicit power over the writing and formation of laws.
2. Question time
open hour with the Prime Minister in which questions of current policy are open for debate and ridicule. Question time keeps the ministers intimate with their parliament, and is filled with lively debate and witty remarks.
2. upper houses in parliamentary government
Generally, upper houses don’t have much power and are not directly elected. The House of Lords in London doesn’t have the right to kill a bill – can only hold up a bill for a year or so. The exception to this is Germany, where the upper house has more power.
2. party discipline
Party discipline is the structure within a party. Leaders develop ways to keep members disciplined in a variety of ways. Most notably, the only way to advance in a parliamentary government is through party politics, which encourages strong party discipline. Because of this, party discipline is much weaker in the United States than in other countries. Italy had a difficult time maintaining party discipline because it allowed for a secret vote and there was no way to verify that members were voting as they were told.
2. presidential government
a system of government in which the chief executive is elected independently of legislature. The executive branch and legislative branch are more cleanly divided than in a parliamentary government.
2. differing patterns of recruitment in parliamentary, presidential government
In a presidential system of government, politicians come from very diverse backgrounds. Some are senators or representatives, some are state governors, and some are even drawn from a background in the military or entertainment. In a parliamentary system, recruits must move up through the governmental ranks, that is, you can only make it into the executive if you’ve put in your time with the party in Parliament.
2. split executive of parliamentary government
In a parliamentary system, the executive role is divided into two positions: a chief executive and a head of state. The head of state (in the UK, this is the Queen)is the embodiment of a citizen’s emotional attachment to the state. They represent the state and are in charge of all sorts of traditions and ceremonies. The chief executive (in the UK, this role is the Prime Minister) is in charge of everything else. He or she leads the government, is the commander in chief and is in charge of the day-to-day governing.
2. constitutional review
Is the act of mediating relations between the executive and legislative branch. In the US, this is performed by the US Supreme Court, which acts as a referee between Congress and the President. Because of the nature of a parliamentary system (a combined legislative and executive branch), constitutional review is unnecessary.
2. case law compared with code law
Case law developed in Britain, where judges developed a body of law that is held above a ruler. The acts and decisions of past judges becomes part of the body of the common law. Code law developed in the rest of Europe, where the government lays out a code of laws and judiciary just implements them. This comes from Napoleon’s conquering of most of Europe and establishing the Napoleonic Code. The main difference between the two is that the role of the law in Case Law systems is difficult to understand in that it is technically of the state, but also above the state
2. Sharia
Islamic law, based on the Qur’an, writings of Muhammad and writings of those close to Muhammad. The law is interpreted by religious leaders. The basis of Sharia is obligation of one person to another, and is founded in generousness and forgiveness. However, Sharia is often very inflexible because it is grounded in an impenetrable text, which is hard to amend. Sharia is the strongest nonwestern law in the world today.
2. Weimar Republic
Was set up as a straightforward parliamentary after World War I. It was set up with proportional representation so small parties were allowed to flourish. The Weimar Republic had a parliament, a cabinet and a president. It wasn’t very well supported socially and economically it was a disaster. The Weimar Republic saw many great cultural and scientific advances.
"Five percent clause" in Germany
Clause in the German political system that states that any party that doesn’t get 5% of the total vote nationally or win at least 3 districts gets no representation.
Class and Politics in Germany
Class distinctions have played a huge part in Germany’s social life for a long time. This is difficult for most Americans to understand, but class systems in Europe most closely resemble the tensions and distinctions forged by segregation of the 1960’s. Fortunately, class lines are becoming less and less distinct.
Christian Democrats, Germany
Until the late 1990’s, Christian Democrats were Germany’s largest and most influential political party. They are just right of center ideologically and are the religious authority on principle religious issues like abortion.
2. Social Democratic Party, Germany
Social Democrats are the major German party, moderately left, with obvious connections to trade union, environmental issues and workers’ rights.
2. Green Party, Germany
The Greens only became a part of Germany’s political landscape in the 1980’s. The Green Party emphasizes many “youth” topics, including strong stances on environmental issues, feminism, and strong pacifist ideals. Also, it is important to note that the Green Party is often very loosely constructed and poorly organized because of their disdain for bureaucracy.
2. social movements, Germany
Social movements have become a large part of Germany’s political culture of the last few decades. Most social movements come from the left, concerning environmentalism, pacifism and feminism.
2. Bundestag, Germany
The Bundestag is the lower house of the German parliament and is the base of power for the cabinet. It has a full-scale committee system and chairmanships are distributed proportionally to the strength of the parties.
2. Bundesrat, Germany
The Bundesrat is the upper house of the German parliament. It is not an elected body, but it is relatively powerful. It can force the Bundestag to reconsider and repass certain bills.
2. Federal Constitutional Court, Germany
Unlike most parliamentary systems, Germany has a strong Constitutional Court system that can block actions of the government if it deems them unconstitutional. It was formed in an attempt to prevent the Hitler tyranny and is generally stronger than the US Supreme Court.
2. reunification of Germany
The reunification of Germany in the 1990’s was the source of great economic instability. East Germany’s industry was less efficient than once thought and inflation only increased with the unification of the two halves.
2. religion in Indonesia
About 87 percent of Indonesians are Muslim. They can further be divided into religious groupings: santri, abangan, and priyayi. The santri are devout Muslims who closely follow Islamic doctrine, the abangan and priyayi are also Muslims, but also follow a certain amount of Hindu or indigenous belief systems. In the last two decades there has been a strong push for more religious piety in Indonesia and even the school system has become a promoter of religion.
2. The New Order, Indonesia
The New Order was the military authoritarian regime established by Suharto which ruled Indonesia until 1999. It was admired for the success of its economic development policies, but reviled for its frequent resort to armed forces. The New Order is internationally notorious for its 1975 invasion of East Timor, a former Portuguese colony, which it continued to occupy in defiance of United Nations resolutions until 1999.
2. Soviet Union
at its height, the Soviet Union was the largest state in landmass and third largest in population. Russia was the largest union republic in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics during 74 years of Communist rule (1917 – 1991). The USSR was composed of 15 republics which corresponded to the traditional homelands of major ethnic groups such as the Estonians, Ukrainians, Armenians and Uzbeks and was created after the Bolshevik revolution overthrew the czars in 1917.
2. Joseph Stalin
Joseph Stalin worked with the Bolshevik regime before 1917 and joined in the Bolshevik seizure of power in November 1917. He worked his way to general secretary of Communist party and created a cult of personality in the Soviet Union. Stalin committed horrible crimes against humanity, but these were only discussed after his death.
2. Mikhail Gorbachev
Mikhail Gorbachev joined the Communist party while a law student at Moscow Student University and later began working as a party bureaucrat and rose to a regional leadership post. Gorbachev became identified with a group of moderate reform within the Communist party and as general secretary he inaugurated reforms to humanize communism but it’s not certain whether he did this in the attempt the democratize Russia or to spread communism. Often aloof and cold, he was one of the most unpopular figures in Russia. He was the president under which the USSR crumbled.
2. Conservatives and Liberals in Russia
Liberals: are pro-democracy and support policies of privatization. Encourage individualism and want to minimize the role of the state in the economy. Want Russia to concentrate on internal development. Certainly a response to the communist state. Liberal in the true sense of the word.
Conservatives: amalgamation of communists and new Russian nationalists. Want aggressive foreign policy and want to rebuild the old empire. Favor a phased re-establishment of a unitary union government on a voluntary basis and protection of the rights of Russians in the “near abroad”.
BOTH: Favor a strong activist state. Glorify the interests of the state above the individual.
2. Vladmir Putin
Graduated from law school and joined the KGB. In 1999 Yeltsin put Putin the new Prime Minister and was Yeltsin successor. Gradually taken control over the media and isn’t much of a working democracy.
2. Nature of political parties in Russia
Political parties are very weak because the Russian people don’t put much stock into them. They are mostly tenuous alliances between politicians. Not much sustained contact with the larger electorate. The exception: United Russia, built by Putin.
2. Interest groups in Russia
No vibrate independent interest groups. “Women of Russia” is one of the only influential interest groups. Also employee groups have formed into interest groups such as teachers and miners. Also, a group to reform social welfare.
2. President, Russia
Chief of state and guarantor of the constitution. He determines the basic directions of foreign policy. The Prime Minister is the next in charge, but most call independent elections. The cabinet (government) operates under the direction of the President with some oversight by the Parliament.
2. Duma, Russia
Lower house of the bicameral Federal Assembly. Presently voted on by a party-list system and is in charge of confirming nominations. They can declare no-confidence in the government. Laws are passed by majority of the total legislation.
2. federalism, Russia
There are 89 members of the federation of Russia and boundary lines are drawn according to nation lines. If it came to a conflict of interest between the regional government and the national government, the national government trumps, as in the United States.
2. federalism, Brazil
Brazil has a federal system which was established with the intention of diffusing power from the national government. Brazil has a long history of cruel centrals of power including a strong imperial rule and then a very centralized military dictatorship. Many government ministries are distributed to the regional governments which have considerably more sovereignty than state governments in the United States.
2. labor unions and state corporatism, Brazil
The government strongly regulates the actions of labor unions. Since the 1970’s, many industries have established themselves as independent which creates a mixture of new and old, government run and independent, creating a fragmented business community. Labor unions must be recognized by the government, their leaders approved and their books checked. The Government sets wages, working hours, conditions and even collects and redistributes union dues.
2. clientelistic politics
In Brazil client politics exists to a large extent, and many civil servants are appointed politically rather than on a merit-based system. This gives many Brazilian government programs a strongly “privatized” quality, because they are administered by functionaries of the party rather than independent bureaucrats. Therefore, the state has a large amount of clout in dealing with industry and the economy.
2. administrative law
sets out the principles governing decision-making by public bodies, mainly the bureaucracy, and the remedies for breaching such rules. For example, America’s Administrative Procedure Act requires courts to hold unlawful any agency action that is ‘arbitrary, capricious,’ etc.
2. international law
the system of rules which states regard as binding in their mutual relations. It derives from treaties, custom, accepted principles and the views of legal authorities.
2. confederation
is a looser link between participating countries, with the members retaining their separate statehood. It is different from federalism in that it doesn’t emphasize a sharing of sovereignty.
2. dual federalism compared with cooperative federalism
Dual federalism, an creation of the USA, meant that national and state governments retained separate spheres of action. Each level independently performed the tasks allocated to it by the constitution. For example, state governments control education standards, maintenance of roads and laws regarding marriage with little input from the national government. Cooperative federalism, as practiced in Germany, is based on collaboration between levels. National and state governments are expected to work as partners in following the interests of the whole.
2. unicameral vs. bicameral legislatures
Unicameral legislatures are the norm today. Single chambers are generally more accountable, economical and decisive, but they do not allow for many viewpoints. Bicameral legislatures are more often found in larger countries and in democracies; they are universal in federations. Proponents of the bicameral legislature argue that the second house offers necessary checks and balances.
2. incumbency effect
arises because existing members can exploit the resources at their disposal such as public recognition, government subsidies, financial backing and media attention. Because of the incumbency effect, new candidates are much more likely to win if the incumbent decides to not run for reelection.
2. legislature in authoritarian states
Because of the nature of authoritarian states, most legislatures are only shadow institutions. Sessions are short and members are elected by the government. Legislatures can be a symbolic demonstration of the state. Can allow for communication between the people and the government, but mostly for show.
2. conference committees
In bicameral legislatures, a joint committee usually reconciles differences in the versions of a bill passed by each chamber. For example, if a bill has different versions in the House and the Senate, a joint committee is established to combine the two documents.
2. vote of confidence
the ultimate test which a legislature can pose to the executive in a parliamentary system. Cabinet depends on the continuing support of majority votes from the parliament. Any legislation that would be contested is considered a vote of confidence. The opposition party can pose a Vote of No Confidence and the cabinet can make a motion a Vote of Confidence, which is done if cabinet knows there is dissention in the party ranks but that the majority would rather pass this piece of legislation than stand for reelection.
2. minority government
a cabinet which doesn’t have the majority of parties votes, but has an agreement with at least one other party to not vote it out of office.
2. formateur
a person or party charged by the head of state with initiating negotiations for a coalitions. The formateur is usually the leader of the party with most seats in parliament.
2. coaltion government
a majority coalition is when two or more parties join together in parliament to form a majority. This is a very common form of governing in Europe, specifically Belgium, Finland, Germany and the Netherlands.
2. presidentialization
is the process by which prime ministers in parliamentary systems have, over the last few decades, strengthened their position in relation to their cabinet and government. The proposition is that prime ministers have ceased to be ‘first among equals’ and instead have become president-ministers.
2. semi-presidential government
combines an elected president performing political tasks with a prime minister who heads a cabinet accountable to the parliament. The prime minister, usually appointed by the president, is responsible for day-to-day domestic government but the president retains an oversight role, responsibility for foreign affairs and can usually take emergency powers. France’s current governing system is a semi-presidential government, with a president who is elected separate of the parliament.
2. cohabitation
occurs in a semi-presidential executive when president and prime minister are drawn from different political camps. It intensifies competition between the two principals and places the president in the awkward position of leading both the nation and the opposition. This can be the case in France’s semi-presidential system. If the President is from the majority party then the President runs things and the Prime Minister acts as the conduit between the President and the Parliament. If the President is not from the majority party, then the Prime Minister is more powerful. In France, the President handles mostly national defense and foreign policy.
2. vertical v. horizontal authority
Vertical accountability exists when an actor at one level is overseen or is subject to sanction by an actor at another level. For example, US presidents are subject to vertical accountability when they face reelection. Horizontal accountability exists when oversight or superintendence operates at the same level. For example, US presidents are subject to horizontal accountability when they face judicial review.