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143 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is a cofactor?
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A cofactor is any nonprotein molecule or ion (such as calcium) needed for an enzyme to function.
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What are four types of bones?
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1) long bones
2) short bones 3) flat bones 4) irregular bones |
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What is characteristic to a long bone?
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Length of the long bone is greater than its width
Long bones act like levers that are pulled by contracting muscles |
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What are some examples of long bones?
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The Femur (thighbone) and the Humerus (upper arm bone) are examples of long bones because the length of the bone is greater than its width.
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What is characteristic to the short bone?
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Short bones have the same dimensions in length, width, and thickness.
Short bones are covered with articular surfaces where one bone moves against another in a joint. |
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What are some examples of short bones?
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The carpals (found in the wrists) and the tarsals (found in the ankle) are examples of short bones.
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With form yields function in mind, why are most flat bones in the body (such as sternum, rib cage and skull) curved?
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The curved shape of these flat bones protect internal organs.
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What are some examples of irregular bones?
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Spinal vertebrate
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What are two characteristics of sesamoid bones?
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1) they are shaped like sesame seeds
2) they develop inside of tendons that pass over long bone |
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What is the epiphysis?
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It is the spongy bone tissue which is sperical in shape and located at the distal and proximal end of a long bone.
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What is the greek meaning of the word diaphysis?
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It means "to grow between". The diaphysis is the area between the two metaphysis.
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Where is the medullary cavity and what does it contain?
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Location: inside diaphysis
Contains: fatty yellow marrow (adipose) |
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What is the function of articular cartilage?
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It helps reduce friction during joint movement and allows the bones to glide past one another.
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What is the periosteum?
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It is the fibrous membrane that covers the outside of the bone that is not covered with articular cartilage.
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What other structures does the periosteum contain?
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1) nerves
2) lymphatic vessels 3) blood vessels that provide nutrients to the bone |
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What is hematopoiesis?
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It is the process of red blood cell formation which happens in the red bone marrow.
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What are four major types of specialized cells in bones?
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1) osteogenic cells
2) osteoblasts 3) osteocytes 4) osteoclasts |
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What is so special about osteogenic cells?
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These cells are capable of becoming osteoblasts or osteoclasts.
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Where are osteocytes usually found in the bone?
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They are found in the mature bone tissue.
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What are the two types of ossification?
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1) intramembraneous
2) endochondral |
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What is the difference between the two different types of ossification?
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Intramembraneous is forming a bone directly on or within a connective tissue while endochondral requires formation of cartilage before hardening into a bone.
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Osteoporosis as an inequality...
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rate of bone reapsorption > rate of bone deposition
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Name two parts of the axial skeleton.
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Skull and vertebral column
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How many facial bones are there?
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14
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What is the function of the cranial bone?
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To protect the brain
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Where is the vomer bone located?
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It is part of the nasal septum which divides the nose into left and right halves
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From top to bottom name the bone regions of the vertical column.
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Cervical
Thoracic Lumbar Sacral Coccygeal Acronym: Serve the lamb sacredly, Cookie. |
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What makes up a vertebra?
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1) vertebral body
2) vertebral arch 3) articular processes |
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Where in the vertebra are the pedicle and laminae located?
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They are located in the vertebral arch.
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What do invertebral discs function as?
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They are used to separate each vertebra.
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What cervical vertebrae allows us to nod our head?
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C1 or the atlas
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What cervical vertebrae allows us to move our head side to side?
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C2 or the axis
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How does the shape of a spine change from birth to adulthood?
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Infant - convex from top to bottom
three months - concave in cervical because baby learns to hold up head 6 - 8 mos. - concave curve in lumbar region b/c baby stands |
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How are peripheral membrane proteins attached to integral membrane proteins?
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through noncovalent bonds
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How are integral membrane proteins attached to the membrane?
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they are attached by covalent bonds
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What is characteristic of simple diffusion?
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Each component in any fluid will diffuse from regions of high concentration of that component toward regions of low concentration of that component.
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When animal cells are placed in hypertonic environments, what happens?
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The cells shrink.
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When animal cells are placed in a hypotonic environment, what happens?
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The cells swell and eventually burst.
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Hypertonic means _______ solute concentration and therefore _______ water concentration.
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higher solute concentration
lower water concentration |
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Hyportonic means _______ solute concentration and therefore _______ water concentration.
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lower solute concentration
higher water concentration |
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What is the term used to describe same total solute concentration inside and outside of the cell?
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Isotonic
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Osmosis is a special case of what type of membrane transport?
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simple diffusion
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What are three types of passive transport?
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1) Simple diffusion
2) Osmosis 3) Facilitated diffusion |
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What types of membrane transports require energy? (3)
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1) Active Transport
2) Endocytosis 3) Exocytosis |
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What is the main idea of saturation kinetics?
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Increasing component concentration beyond a point causes no further increase in transport.
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How is active transport different from facillitated diffusion?
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1) active transport is sensitive to the concentration component on only one side of the membrane
2) active transport is insensitive to the concentration of the component on the other side 3) active transport usually saturates at low component concentrations |
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In secondary active transport, if a coupled component moves in the same direction as the concentration gradient, what is it called?
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Symport Process
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What is an antiport process?
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It is when a coupled component moves in the direction opposite to the concentration gradient.
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What are some examples of unicellular eukaryotes?
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Protistans
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What is different about a prokaryote nucleoid in comparison to a eukaryote one?
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The DNA in the prokaryote nucleoid is not organized into histones which is often the case in eukaryotes.
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Where are most of the proteins made in a prokaryotic cell?
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They are usually made in the free floating ribosomes in the cytosol.
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What are chromatophores?
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Chromatophores are internal membranes in cyanobacteria and other photosynthetic bacteria.
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What do chromatophores contain?
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They contain photosynthetic pigments that function like thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts.
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What does a plasma membrane of a prokaryotic cell lack that a eukaryotic cell has?
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glycolipids and cholesterol
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The outer membrane of a cell wall in a Gram negative bacteria plays a greater role in controlling passage of materials than Gram positive bacteria because of...
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Gram negative bacteria have porins along with LPS which do not allow water soluable molecules to go through.
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What is the structure and function of pilli?
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structure - hollow protein tubes
function - attach bacteria to surfaces & transfer DNA between cells during conjugation |
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Where does rRNA synthesis take place?
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In the nucleolus
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What three components of an eukaryote chromosome have been assembled and shown to constitute a functional artificial yeast chromosome?
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1) centromere sequence
2) replication initiation sequence 3) telomere sequence |
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What is the function of a centromere sequence?
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It integrates the chromosome into the spindle during either mitosis or meiosis.
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Why is a telomere sequence important?
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It is needed at the end of each chromosome to allow replication without the loss of genetically critical sequences.
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Describe chromatin structurally in terms of component.
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Chromatin consists of protein and DNA in a 2:1 ratio (by weight).
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What does the net positive surface charge in histones allow the proteins to do?
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The histones with their net positive surface charge bind ionically to the negatively charged phosphate groups in DNA.
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Name the four histone classes.
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* H2A
* H2B * H3 * H4 |
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What does a nucleosome consist of?
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* two molecules of each histone class
* two turns of DNA (146 nucleotide pairs) wound around the outside |
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When viewed under an electron light microscope, which one is lighter: euchromatin or heterochromatin?
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Euchromatin
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Why does euchromatin appear lighter?
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There is a lot of DNA with regualatory proteins that inhibit nucleosome assembly in between the nucleosomes.
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What is the function of a topoisomerase II enzyme?
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It reduces DNA coiling during replication.
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Name one major cellular process that happens in the cytosol.
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Glycolysis
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What types of proteins are made in the rough ER?
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Proteins that are packaged by the Golgi. These include lysosomal enzymes and proteins that will be secreted by the cell.
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In the golgi apparatus, what is the difference between the cis face and the trans face?
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The cis face receives vesicles from the rER while the trans face is the surface buds off the vesicle to be transported to lysosome and plasma membrane.
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What are golgi bodies called in plant cells?
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Dictyosomes
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In animal cells, where is the golgi body usually located within the cell?
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They are located near the pair of centrioles that are found next to the nucleus.
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What are secretory vesicles?
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They are spherical sacs of membrane that have materials to be secreted by exocytosis.
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What are lysosomes?
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These are spherical sacs of membrane that house digestive enzymes.
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How are lysomal enzymes bought into the cell?
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by phagocytosis or the digestion of damaged organelles
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What cellular process happens inside of the mitochondria?
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Krebs Cycle
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What is common among desmin, cytokeratin, vimentin, neurofilament, and the glial fibrillary acidic protein?
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They are all found inside of intermediate filaments.
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What enzyme does peroxisomes house?
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Catalase
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What's the function of catalase?
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It generates hydrogen peroxide to detoxify various organic molecules.
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What is the function of Zonula occluden?
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It prevents the passage of materials through the extracellular space between cells and allow an epithelium to serve as a barrier.
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What are the components of a nucleotide?
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5 carbon sugar
nitrogen base phosphate group |
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What carbon is the nitrogen base attached to?
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the one prime carbon
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What carbon is the phosphate group attached to?
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the five prime carbon
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What carbon is the hydroxyl group on?
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the three prime carbon
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What end of the DNA does the messenger RNA bind to during initian stage of translation?
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the five prime end
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What are stereocilia?
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Elongonated microvilli
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What is the function of a histamine?
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dilates the blood vessels increasing the permeability of the capillaries to increase interstitial fluid
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Why does smooth muscle have the appearance that it does?
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The muscle is made up of a whole bunch of uninucleated cells in which the myosin is not organized into thick filaments.
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What does gastrin do?
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It triggers gastric juice secretion.
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What does CCK do?
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It stimulates the gall bladder to release bile and pancreas to release enzymes.
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What does secretin do?
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It triggers secretion of bicarbonate by the pancreas.
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Describe the pulmonary circuit.
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Blood pumped by the right side of the heart passes through the lungs and enters the left side of the heart.
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Describe the systemic circuit in the mammalian heart.
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Blood pumped by the left side of the heart is distributed to the other body organs and returns to the right side of the heart
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What are three types of cells stimulated by IL-2 (interlukin 2)
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Helper T cells
Cytotoxic T cells B cells |
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How do perforins work?
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Perforins puncture the target cell which allows water and ions to rush inside and swell up the cell to cause it to burst. This causes lack of host cells for the pathogens to reproduce in.
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What is clonal selection?
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The mechanism that determines specificity and accounts for antigen memory in the immune system; occurs because an antigen introduced into the body selectively activates only a tiny fraction of inactive lymphocytes, which proliferate to form a clone of effector cells specific for the stimulating antigen.
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What types of cells are involved in the secondary immune response?
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Memory B cells
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Describe the humoral immune response.
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The humoral immune response is the production of antibodies for the purposes of fighting infection.
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Trace the pathway of a reflex.
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1) sensory receptor on dendrite
2) ganglion cell 3) axon of cell 4) dorsal root 5) dorsal root of spinal cord 6) axon via ventral root 7) spinal nerve 8) effector organ |
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Where are multipolar neurons found?
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They are found in the CNS (spinal cord and brain).
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What is the function of the renal corpuscle?
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It delivers blood and makes ultrafiltrate.
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What is the function of the proximal convoluted tube?
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Action transport of molecules
passive water reabsorption secretion of uric acid |
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What is the function of the descending loop of Henle?
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There is passive diffusion of water, salt ion and chloride ion out into the medulla.
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How is the ascending loop of Henle different from the descending one?
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The ascending loop of Henle is impermeable to water.
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Through what hormone is the distal convoluted tubule regulated?
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Aldosterone
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What hormone are the collecting ducts in kidneys regulated by?
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Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
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Where is aldosterone made?
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It is made in the adrenal cortex.
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What type of -derm is the epidermis derived from?
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Ectoderm
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Where in the body is the stratus lucidum found in?
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palms and soles
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What layer of the skin has cells that nuclei and organelles and have cells referred to as "horny cells"?
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Stratum corneum
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What -derm is the dermis derived from?
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mesoderm
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What are the two strata of the dermis?
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1) Papillary layer
2) Reticular layer |
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What are the lines used for surgical incisions called?
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Langer's lines
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What layer of skin houses the sesory receptors?
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Dermis
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What is the function of a sebaceous gland?
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The make oily secretions that help protect the skin from drying out.
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What is the function of the ceruminous glands?
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They secrete wax to protect the auditory canals in the ear.
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What are the four fat soluable vitamins?
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A, D, E, K
Retinol, Calciferol, Tocopherol, K |
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What dioes a deficiency in vitamin D cause?
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Rickets
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True or false: Most water soluable vitamins are coenzymes.
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True
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What vitamin occurs in plant foods as pyridoxamine and in animal foods as either pyridoxal or pyridoxol?
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Vitamin B6
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What vitamin binds to a protein in the stomach called the intrinsic factor?
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Vitamin B12
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What is a goiter?
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A goiter is the enlargement of the thyroid gland not due to neoplasm or inflammation.
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What are the actions of acetylcholine?
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excites muscles
decreases heart rate relays signals in autonomic nervous system |
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What are the actions of dopamine?
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It is involved in motor function. That is why people with Parkinson's disease are unable to move because they lack dopamine.
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What are the actions of serotonin?
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affects circadian rhythms and sleep and wakefulness
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Where is the neurotransmitter glycine found?
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in the spinal cord
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From a neurological perspective, what exactly is the nucleus?
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A nucleus is a cluster of neuron cell bodies witin the CNS
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What does the frontal lobe control?
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It controls motor and speech.
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What does the parietal lobe control?
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Sensory impressions like touch, pressure, and pain
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What does the occipital lobe deal with?
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vision
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What does the temporal lobe deal with?
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hearing
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What part of the midbrain controls body temperature, osmotic balance, blood pressure, and sleep?
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Hypothalamus
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What are two thyroid hormones called?
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T3 (triiodothyronine)
T4 (thyroxin) |
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What hormone lowers blood calcium levels?
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Thyrocalcitonin
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What do parathyroid hormones do?
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They control the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus.
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What does calcitonin do?
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It lowers the blood calcium level.
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What is glucagon and where is it produced?
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It is produced in the pancreas. It stimulates the conversion of glycogen to glucose.
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What is the most powerful mineralocorticoid?
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Aldosterone
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What are functions of mineralocorticoids?
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They function in the retention of water, sodium, chloride, and increase urinary loss of potassium and phosphorus by action of the renal tubules.
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Is pituary control present in mineralocorticoids?
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NO
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Overfunction of the zona glomerulosa leads to what disease?
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Conn's syndrome
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Overfunction of the zona fasciculata leads to what?
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Cushing's syndrome
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Overfunction of the zona reticularis leads to what?
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Adrenogenital syndrome
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