Plants Test #2

Front 1

What is a grain?

Back 1

- single

- dry indehiscent fruit

- seed coat and fruit wall are fused (caryopsis)

Front 2

What is cereal?

Back 2

edible grain from cultivated grasses

Front 3

What is whole grain?

Back 3

- all parts of the caryopsis are used for flour

- more nutritious because of embryo and aleurone layer

Front 4

Label a piece of grain.

Back 4

1) Bran: outside, fused fruit and seed coat (pericarp)

- seed coat

- Aleurone layer, high in protein/enzymes to break down starch and stored fats

2) Endosperm: inside, starch

3) Embryo/germ: wheat germ

Front 5

How have humans selected certain aspects of the grain morphology?

Back 5

1) Reduced vegetative branching (tillering) = single strong branch

2) reduced branching in inflorenscense = same as above but allows for harvesting something stronger and closer together

3) Decreased lodging = stops harvest from falling over in rain/wind and breaks stems

Front 6

What are the reproductive characteristics of cereal/ grain?

Back 6

- Spikelet: little buds

- Florets: flowers

- Glumes/chaff: leaf like strctures at base of the flower of the spikelet

- Awn: extension out of the flower. vegetative extension. when teh flower gets fertilized and produces caryopsis, awn is associated. becomes stuff as the fruit matures. is a trigger to help distribute. when animal or something runs, awn causes it to dislodge and fall from plant. bad for farmers causing product to go on ground = SHATTERING

Front 7

What reproductive characters of grain have gone under human selection?

Back 7

1) Non shattering: greater grain retention, awn shorter and softer

2) Threshing: mechanical removal of chaff/glume since they are not edible. either walk or bail grass

3) Winnowing: separation of chaff from grain. throw in air and lighter material flys away leaving grain

4) Removal of bran: between clay plates

5) Free threshing: less mechanical involvement to remove fruit from chaff

Front 8

Describe wheats geographical origin.

Back 8

1) first in Fertile Crescent

2) now is grown all over

3) initially less important than barely, but now most widely grown cereal

4) was dominant rain around time of the Book of Genesis "staff of life"

Front 9

Describe wheats genetic origin.

Back 9

1) wild and early domesticates. Diploids (7 pairs of chromosomes) AA

2) Early in cultivation a natural mutation arose that suppressed shattering.

3) Einkorn = one grain

4) Einkorn and wild goat grass BB hybridized

5) Hybrid was sterile but chromosomes doubled (AABB = 28) = tetraploid

6) Emmer (DD) undewent mutation = chaff dropped early = free threshing

7) Durum wheats are hard wheats used for pasta

8) Emmer and another wild goat grass hybridized

9) this hybrid modified chromosome number (42) (AABBDD). hexaploid, bread wheats of today.

10) breads produce two proteins that make gluten = elastic in water and leavening agent

Front 10

Describe how wheat travelled the world.

Back 10

1) Spread from fertile crescent to asia and europe

2) Was introduced to the new world by spain but didnt grow well due to fungal pests.

3) Russia introduced Turkey Wheat to midwest in 1800s. successful because climates were more similar.

Front 11

Describe advances through wheat breeding.

Back 11

1) Rust fungus. affects ability to photosynthesize. made resistant strain.

2) Development of industrial mills to process from starch to flour.

3) Was the first human made cereal. AABB crossed with RR to make embyros. today only a few thousand acres are grown as it is a primary grain feed and has poor gluten production.

Front 12

Describe the geographical origin of barely.

Back 12

1) started in fertile crescent ~9000 BP

2) was the first domesticated cereal

3) Brought to the new world by Columbus

4) more hearty than wheat

5) 5th most important cereal today

Front 13

What are the changes to barely due to domestication?

Back 13

1) all barely plants have 3 fertile flowers/spikelets. Use to be 1

2) Discovered through archaeological evidence and molecular bio that this was a single gene mutation. (2 --> 6)

(spikelets occur at alternating nodes along the stem)

Front 14

What were the uses for barely through history?

Back 14

1) Barely grain was roasted into paste and ground into porridge

2) egyptians and greeks used for bread

3) Acients soaked the grains which made grinding easier. Known as malted barely (early stage of germination)

4) Starch in endosperm broken down by amylase enzymes in the aleurone layer to simple sugars.

Front 15

What are the modern day uses for barely?

Back 15

> 50% used for feed

~33% for beer and scotch

Front 16

What were the changes to barely due to human selection/breeding?

Back 16

1) increased grain production (2 -> 6 row)

2) sychronous tillering

3) shorter stems = less lodging

4) tolerance to cold and saline sols

5) endosperm uniformity for beer and scotch

Front 17

Describe Rye (secale).

Back 17

1) Origin of cultivation in southeast asia

2) by 1800 BCE was grown widely in europe "poor mans wheat"

3) Major grain in russia as it was able to germinate in cold; deep root system.

4) Rye bread = 50/50 rye/wheat, less gluten than wheat.

Front 18

Describe rice.

Back 18

- origin was southeast asia

- World’s most important crop.Feeds more people worldwide than any other grain

- Only crop grown almost entirelyfor human food

- Uses ~11% of world’s arableland

- Grown world-wide by 20thcentury; 1 primary species with > 8000 varieties

Front 19

Describe traditional rice cultivation.

Back 19

1. Plant a bunch of rice plants inwater

2. Azolla is present. A weedywater fern. Has the ability to fixatomospheric nitrogen. When it dies it puts in into the rice. “green manure”

3. Don’t have to fertilize withchemicals

4.Problem arises from insectcalled rice weavle. Defoliat the rice plants. Only way to treat is withpesticides.

Front 20

Describe organic rice cultivation.

Back 20

- Everything is the same upuntil…

- Have ducks, bread to stay inthe rice patties

- Ducks eat the bugs and azolla

- Ducks poop out more greenmanure.

Front 21

Describe wild rice.

Back 21

- Completely different genus tomost rice varieties

- Is a new world aquatic species

- Cultivated by native Americans

- Grain collected by“shattering”. Only way to get the caryopsis to come off the plant. Wouldcollect in the bottom of the boat.

- Never domesticated. High demand + low cultivations = $$$$ (expensive)

Front 22

Describe the origin or corn (zea).

Back 22

- Only domesticated grain fromthe new world

- Domestication: 4700 – 7700 YBP

- No wild equivalent can be found

- Leaves on very tight = selection. Could never exist in the wildtoday

Front 23

How is corn morphologically unlike any other wild grass?

Back 23

1) Typically one large stem

2) Each stem is terminated by tassel of male flowers

3) Female flowers tightly packedtogether = cob. “silks” = remnants of styles

4) Ears (cob, silk, husk) ofmodern corn larger than any potential relative.

Front 24

Describe the Tripartite theory of the origin of modern day corn.

Back 24

1) Tripsacum: male on top, female on bottom. 2n = 34 or 72

2) Teosinte: looks kinda like corn, tassels at end with cobs below. a multi branched entity. 2n = 20 ( same as corn)

3) plus an extinct ancestor

Front 25

What are the similarities between corn and teosinte plant?

Back 25

1) Both have n= 20; chromosomessimilar in size and organization

2) Both have male tassels at endof stems

3) Both have ears on lateralbranches; silks remnants of styles

Front 26

What are the differences between corn and teosinte plant?

Back 26

1) Zea has 1-3 ears/stems on short lateralbranches

2) Zea has one main stem with tassel

3) Teosinte – many lateral branches withtassels at end, tassels may be found at end of ears.

Front 27

What are the dissimilarities between corn and teosinte fruit?

Back 27

- cobs are totally different

- Teosinte has 6-10 triangular fruits per cob. each surrounded by hard shell (cupule). cobs chatter to spread seed

- corn has many fruits per ear (14-16 rows)

- corn has cupules reduced and stay on cob

- not shattering + tight husk = no dispersion for corn

Front 28

What are the different theories in regards to how corn may have come to be?

Back 28

- Catastrophic SexualTransmutations theory: feminization of male branches and a reduction inbranching

- Orthodox Teosinte theory –modern corn result from human selection of naturally occurring mutants: MAKESMOST SENSE

- Recent morphological analyses,and genetic and molecular studies, demonstrate that that morphologicaldifferences controlled by a few genes – changes could have occurred rapidly(within a few 1000 years)

Front 29

What are the different types of corn?

Back 29

1) Popcorn: oldest variety of cornin terms of cultivating and domesticating. Widely used by natives because itdidn’t need to be ground o Hard bran with high moisture;heat, explodes, turns endosperm inside out.

2) Dent corn: soft starch, branshrinks when dried. All field corns. Used to make animal feed, corn meal,cornstarch, corn syrup, ethanol.

3) Sweet corn: harvested and eatenwhen immature before endosperm turns from sugars to starch. If you leave it,will turn hard. Sweet because things haven’t changed to starch.

Front 30

What is Sorghum?

Back 30

- Gathering and cultivationsoriginated in southern Africa. (done over 8000 years)

- Domesticated for >3000 years

- Dozens of varieties

- Grain sorghum – animal feed (US) & human food (Africa and india)

- Sweet sorghum – forage or sugar(molasses)

- It is gluten free

- Fruits = grains

- Used in the production ofgluten free alcoholic beverages

- Whole plant can be used forfeed (silage) · Embryo is high in oil content

Front 31

What is quinoa?

Back 31

- “promising food” - 2001

- altnernative crop – 2006

- originated in south America

- remains have dated back to 5000BC

- high in protein content(14-18%)

- gluten free

- rich in lysine (deficient inmost cereals, essential amino acid)

- rich in methionine (lacking inlegumes, potent antioxidant)

- Fruits – grains (actuallyachenes) need to be soaked, washed and rubbed to remove bitter substances(Saponins) in the seed coat

- Cooked and eaten or roasted andground into flour (pasta, bread, etc)

Front 32

How do grains feed farm animals?

Back 32

FORAGE GRASSES

- Leaf material digestible onlyby ruminants

- ~5X the acreage of all cerealcrops combined

- grazed directly

- hay (<15% water content)

- used for silage

SILAGE

- Pickled plant parts made insilos

- Controlled fermentation offorage plants not left to dry in the field

- Starts with aerobic bacteriaconsuming plants

- CO2 and heat produced byrespiration

- O2 used up

- Anaerobic bacteria take overand produce lactic and organic acids

- Acids “pickle” silage and keep it from rotting

Front 33

Describe legumes.

Back 33

- 2nd to grasses in importance tohumans

- ancient civilizations usedlegumes in combination with grains (palatability and nutrition)

- > 16 000 species

- Subfamily classification basedon floral morphology

- All have same dry, dehiscentfruit type = legume (bean pod)

- Faboideae: major of food crops. Mostimportant ecologically

- Pulse: dry, mature legume seed

Front 34

Describe Peas.

Back 34

- 8000 to 9500 years ago found

- part of the oldest complex ofcultivated foods (barely, wheat, lentils)

- fossil seed size: wild seedsize (gathered prior to domestication?)

- Traditionally peas harvestedwhen mature *dry)

- Mainstay of peasant populationsduring European middle ages

- 1600 – eaten “fresh” beforemature

- modern peas lack tough fruitwall and mature seeds (e.g., snow peas and sugar snap peas)

Front 35

Describe Broad Fava bean.

Back 35

- important crop of cool regions throughout meditaerranean

- Canada and China largest producers

- Favism: Short term hemolytic anemia (Breakdown of red blood cells). disease of people of mediterranean dissent. G6PD enzyme deficiency

Front 36

What are the benefits of Favism/Fava beans?

Back 36

- during anemia caused by favism, damaged red blood cells cannot support malaria parasites, plus the oxidant level in blood is extremely high = injuring more parasites.

- Malaria parasite cell development is adversely affected

- when fewer malarial cells survive = attack is less severe

- BUT favism is detrimental to long term health, but not as detrimental as unreated malaria

- Survive long enough to pass on Favism gene

- no malaria = favism would not have survived

- harvest and consumption of fava beans coincides with peak of mosquito breeding season

Front 37

Describe Soybeans.

Back 37

- originated in southeast asia

- most important of legumes! high protein, low carbs, high amino acids

- poor mans meat, cow without bones

- heavily GMO'd - candidate crop for feeding increasing world population

- seed coat contains trypsin - reduces digestibility (HEAT TREATMENT)

- use to be used for oil, paint base, animal feed

Front 38

Describe the process of making tofu.

Back 38

1. beans soaked

2. crushed

3. heated to near boiling to break down trypsin and solid matter

4. soy milk extracted (okara comes out - solid)

Front 39

Describe the process of making soy sauce.

Back 39

1. take okara and mix with ground roasted wheat

2. add koji mold

3. add salt water = moromi

4. allowed to ferment for 6 months - 1 yr

5. pressed, filtered, pasteurized = soy sauce

Front 40

What are other uses for soy beans?

Back 40

- bean sprouts: high in vitamin C

- Henry ford - soy bean fibre suits

- edible oil products (miracle whip)

- Animal feed

- Paint base

- Paint remover

Front 41

Describe the common bean.

Back 41

- independent domestication events in Mexico and peru

- NA natives used as companion plant for corn (help replenish nitrogen)

- POD BEANS: string beans, wax beans, snap beans, green beans

- SHELLED BEANS: colour varients of same speices. pinto, black, kidney, navy

Front 42

Describe Peanuts.

Back 42

- flower gets fertilized, the stalk of the flower elongates and pushes the developing ovary into the ground

- SA origin

- hard woody coat would split open if left

- Traditionally cooked and eaten like any other legume

- 1600s: peanuts taken to africa by portuguese

- 1700s slaves brought them to souther US.

Front 43

What are some peanut uses?

Back 43

- JH Kellog: peanut butter, easy digest, patients

- George Washington Carver, > 300 peanut products, crop rotations for cotton N2

- oil, peanut butter, eat nuts

Front 44

Describe Tamarind.

Back 44

- fruit

- used in Africa and southern Asia for 100s of years

- collect the sticky pul

- drink flavouring

- Candies

Front 45

Describe Carob.

Back 45

- branch covered in female flowers that are very simplified

- native to mediteranean

- Products: pulp, carob powder (cocoa subs.), seeds are very uniform = weights/carat

- Endopersom extracted -> carob bean gum - used as hydrogel (emulsifier)