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136 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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How do cells communicate
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Through cytoplasmic connections
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How can cells be different
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Because of specialization and differentiation
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What are the plant organ systems
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Root system (in soil) and Shoot system (in the air)
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Shoot system and root system do what
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shoot system absorbs co2 and sunlight through leaves, and root system takes up h20 and nutrients/ions for photosynthesis
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Where are nutrients and h20 transported
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Up and down through vascular tissue
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What do plants make out of their diet
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They make every molecule needed in every cell from co2, sunlight, h20, and nutrients. It makes it's carbon skeleton and all the enzymes needed to make everything else.
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What are the vegetative plant organs of flowering plants
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Leaves, stems, roots
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What are the reproductive structures of flowering plants
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Flower and the fruit
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All organs have what
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Tissues, and connecting them is the vascular tissue which acts as the circulatory system
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Roots do what
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Anchor plants in the substrate, absorb nutrients and h20, and transport
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Transport is a function of what organs
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All of them
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The roots make up what percentage of the plant's biomass
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80%
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Roots are always...
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undergoing respiration with the soil as the source of oxygen. Too much h20 can drown the plant
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What are adventitious roots
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Roots that function to add extra support such as prop roots and pneumatophores
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Roots are used to store...
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Starches so that after winter when the spring comes they have a source of energy to grow before photosynthesis can occur
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Round structures in plants are typically used for what
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Storage (fruit, seed, round roots)
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Plant cells contain
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cell wall, plastids (including chloroplasts), large vacuoles, and plasmodesmata
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What's the function and structure of the cell wall
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It's made of cellulose, very rigid, with plasma membrane right up against it. As h20 enters cell turgur pressure increases like a water balloon in a box. Cell wall protects the cell from bursting from turgur pressure and from insects/microbes that might damage the cell
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Function and structure of plasmids
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Mostly contain pigments, store starch, or are chloroplasts for photosynthesis. They are organelles with two membranes (mitochondria also have two membranes). Chloroplasts and mitochondria have their own dna, but not enough to lives outside the cell.
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Plant versus animal growth
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Plants experience indeterminant growth and animals have determinant growth, because they grow to a certain point and then stop.
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Roots and shoots grow from where
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The meristematic cells where all they do is go through mitotic division. As new cells elongate and differentiate it pushes the root tip further down.
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What is the zone of maturation
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At areas of maturation root hairs grow and that's where the h20 and nutrients are absorbed
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Every shoot and root has what
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An apical meristem
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Why are nutrients needed
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They are needed for growth, reproduction, and repair (maintaining life)
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What does the root do with the O2 it absorbs
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It doesn't transport it, but rather uses it for cellular respiration in mitochondria and give off co2 from cellular respiration
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Do leaves absorb water
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No, the plant loses water through the leaves
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Fibrous roots systems are usually found in
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monocots. Fibrous roots don't have a primary root but rather many adventitious roots
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Tap roots are usually found in
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dicots. They have a primary root which continues to grow
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What is phenotypic plasticity
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Phenotypic change in response to changes in the environment. Very important since plants aren't mobile but is found in animals as well.
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10-10-10
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Fertilizer that is equal parts of 3 limiting components in the soil. Nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium
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What is nitrogen fixation
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Turning n2 into ammonia. It can take place in 2 places in the soil, but mostly takes place in bacteria.
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Nitrogen fixation in soil
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Organic matter (humus) contains ammonifying bacteria which gives off ammonium, which is then turned into no3 by nitrifying bacteria which can be taken up the plant roots. Some can absorb ammonium directly and some need it as a nitrate
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Industrial fixation is
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coming nitrogen and hydrogen with a catalyst under pressure to form ammonium
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Nitrogen is a limiting nutrient for the plant, where is the difference made up from
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It is made up by recycling humus into nitrogen
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Once nitrogen enters the roots it is made into what
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organic compounds (amino acids)
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Nitrogen fixation when bacteria and plants are symbiotic, then get don't need
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to get nitrogen from the soil. This is an example of communication between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
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Rhizobium is what?
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A free-living bacteria in the soil and only fix nitrogen when associated with a root and are then in an 02 free environment
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What is nod factor
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A chemical produced by the root when it comes in contact with rhizobium, and then in response the root produces an infection thread (for invagination) and they enter the root through the infection thread. (They don't actually enter the root though. only the thread). Eventually they are pinched off into bacteroids, and the plant undergoes cell division to develop root nodules with vascular tissue connecting it to the root. Bacteria fixes the nitrogen and the root takes it up.
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Nodules don't develop if
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bacteria isn't present to respond to flavenoids
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What is a flavenoid
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Flavenoids bind with Nod D in bacteria, which then binds with a nod box, which then turns on a gene in the bacteria that makes enzymes which result in the nod factor being produced. The nod factor then binds in the root and the root makes infection threads.
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The shorter the wavelength
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The more energy
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All life on earth is dependent on
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visible light
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light is made up of
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photons
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Of visible light plants only use
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blue and red
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6CO2 + 12H20 --light/chlorophyll-->C6H1206 + 6O2 +6H20
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The CO2 comes from the atmosphere into the leaves, the H20 comes from the soil in through the roots -- add light which is absorbed through the chlorophyll--> (light dependent reactions) h20 and light energy make 02, atp, and nadph. (calvin cycle/light-independent reaction) C02 + atp and nadph make glucose
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what is a pigment
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A chemical that absorbs certain wavelengths of light and reflects other wavelengths of light and others are transmitted
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Chemical energy
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energy from light
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Carotenoids absorb -------- and transmit ----------
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absorb blue and green and transmit yellow, orange, or red
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chlorophylls absorb----------- and transmit-----------
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blue and red and transmit green light
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Chlorophyll and carotenoids (and some chlorophyll a) are
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accessory pigments not directly involved in photosynthesis
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Flavonoids are
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not accessory pigments. Reds, blues, and purples are reflected. They are located in the vacuoles and protect the plant cells from uv light. Without it the chlorophyll is bleached out and the plant dies. Plant killers attack flavonoids
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Hierarchy of the leaf (organ)
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-epidermal cells
-mesophyll cells (primary in photosynthesis/ parenkyma cells) -vascular bundles -3 membranes (3rd is the thylakoid membrane within chloroplasts) -inside cholorplasts are stroma |
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What are granum
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stacks of thylakoid membrane with spaces between like stacks of cookie tins. Stacks of granum are connected by thylakoid membranes
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How/where do chlorophyll absorb energy
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at the atomic level. When light is received it raises the electrons to a higher/excited state which is unstable. To become stable the chlorophyll either has the electron pass it's energy to another molecule using antenna complexes which eventually funnel into a chlorophyll a called a reaction center. When passing it to the reaction center it can give the enter electron away. It can also emit a photon and give off light which makes it fluoresce.
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What reaction within the chlorophyll gets photosynthesis started
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The electron acceptor in the reaction center accepting an electron
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What are the names of the accessory pigments in photosystems 1&2
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P680 and P700 which are chlorophyll a pigments
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What happens in the light-dependent reaction
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Light and water interact and give off o2, atp, and nadph
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What reaction is in the thylakoid membranes
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light-dependent reaction
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what reaction takes place in the stroma
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the light-independent reaction
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What happens in the light-independent reaction
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Co2, atp, and nadph interact to make c6h1206 and 6o2
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What is pheophytin
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An electron acceptor that helps with a series of oxidation reduction reactions along the electron transport chain where energy is gradually reduced until it reaches cytochrome complex
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What is photophosphorylation
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When atp is synthesized (dependent on light) from H+ going through a special protein with the gradient and it makes atp when it goes through
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How are photosystems 1 and 2 linked
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in a z scheme. electrons are raised from each system and 2nadph are produced
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Where do the necessary electrons come from for photosynthesis
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Photolysis (2h20 are split giving off 4e- and ---> 4H+ and o2. H20 supplies an endless supply of electrons for photosynthesis and as a byproduct it produces o2 and supplies H+ to the thylakoid space
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What happens in the calvin cycle
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RuBP (5 carbons) receives 1 co2 and then breaks down into 2 3 carbon molecules of PGA. Ribisco bridges the gap between 5c rubp and 3c pga. PGAL (3c) comes out of the calvin cycle and from that the plant synthesizes sugars, starches, amino acids, and fatty acids.
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Where does gas exchange occur in the plant
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In the stoma (stomata) (NOT STROMA) is where gas exchange occurs in the plant and only the guard cells are photosynthetic part of the epidermis
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What is the only photosynthetic part of the epidermis
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the guard cells of the stoma
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What are the limiting factors of photosynthesis
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light and co2
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What is the light compensation point
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When the co2 uptake=the co2 evolution. In other words the rate of photosynthesis= to the rate of respiration
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What is a co2 limitation
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When the co2 concentration is so high that no matter how much light is present the plant can't keep up/go any faster to get rid of the co2
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Where do you find apical meristems
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-at the growing shoot
-at the tip of the growing root -at axillary buds --always produces a stem/branch, but from that you can get leaves, fruit/flower |
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Where does meiosis occur in angiosperms
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Only in the flower.
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meiosis always...
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-gives rise to spores
--spores allow plants to grow on land --spores protect the seed from dessication because it's thick walled -is haploid |
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What is the first step of differentiation and where does it occur
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It occurs in the meristems from mitosis. The first step of differentiation is the primary meristems
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what are the primary meristems
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Protoderm (epidermis), procambium (vascular tissue), ground meristem (parenkyma)
parenkyma is where photosynthesis and storage occurs |
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What is the protoderm
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the epidermis
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what is the ground meristem
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parenkyma tissue
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What is the procambium
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vascular tissue
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Which plants does alternation of generation occur
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In all plants and algae
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What is alternation of generation
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Switching between mitotic reproduction and meiotic reproduction.
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Sporic life cycle in altern. of generation
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meiosis produces haploid spores (1n)
mitosis gives way to gametophytes (multicellular haploid organism ) mitosis fertilization 2n zygote mitosis- diploid organism (sporophyte) sporangia (2n) meiosis |
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What is the negative of a sporic/haploid life cycle
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If there is a mutation it will be expressed since every gene is expressed since there is only 1 set
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What happens as you go from moss to ferns to gymnosperms to angiosperms?
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There is a reduction in the gametophyte, a loss of dependency on h20 to reproduce and no flagellated sperm . The gametophyte in angiosperms is so small it isn't even made up of cells but rather just nuclei
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What is a carpel
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the section in the ovary with ovules and seeds. Each section of an orange is a carpel
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What is a pistil
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the stigma, style, and ovary
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Pollinators and flowers is an example of
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mutualism
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What is a perfect flower
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A monoecious flower with the same place for male and female organs. Silk on corn is the stigma and style to deliver the sperm to the ovary
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What is an imperfect flower
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A dioecious flower because there are both male and female plants
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What is heterospory
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Production of two kinds of spores: microspore (male) and megaspore (female).
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What is a megaspore
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Female spore where inside the ovule there is a sporangium. Inside the sporangium is a megasporocyte which contains one egg and 2 polar bodies
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What is a microspore
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Male spore that is contained within a microsporocyte (4 microspores in each). Male gametophyte is contained within each pollen grain. Thick walled to prevent dessication. NO WATER IS REQUIRED FOR FERTILIZATION
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How does seed dispersal occur
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Animals eating fruit and defecating seeds. This is very important because plants expend a lot of energy creating fruit so that the seeds will be dispersed.
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Pros and cons of self-pollination
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pro- easy to do
con- no genetic variation, but do have some genetic recombination -don't produce as many ovules/seeds |
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Pros/cons of cross-pollination
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pro- much more genetic diversity
-many more ovules/seeds cons-harder to get pollen to another plant |
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What provides nutrients to the seed
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Cotelydons and endosperm.
Endosperm is consumed first, and then the cotelydons. |
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What is double fertilization
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one sperm divides into 2 sperm. One fertilizes the zygote (2n), and the other fertilizes the endosperm nucleus (3n).
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Under what circumstances would a seed go dormant?
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In areas where the winters or summers are too cold/hot for plants to grow. The dormancy hormone ABA closes stomates and causes dormancy.
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What does ABA do
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Inhibits growth/tells the plant/seed to go dormant. It closes the stomates and causes dormancy . Some plants have varying levels of ABA and some have a constant level, but become immune to it eventually and germinate on time.
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How do plants know what time it is
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Plants flower in response to photoperiods. They respond to periods of light/dark in a 24 hour period.
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What did Hammer and Bonner discover with Xanthium
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That it isn't the length of light that matters, but the length of darkness
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Short day long night plants flower
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where there is a light period shorter than a given period. Flower in periods of longer nights
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Long day short night plants flower
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when there is a light period longer than a given period. Flower in periods of shorter nights
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Where the plant i a long night or short night determines
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In what areas plants can grow.
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What is a flower
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a modified leaf
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What is photoreversibility
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The ability of the plant to change from flowering to not flowering depending on the photo period
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What is a phytochrome
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blue light protein that acts as the switch for germination
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What is red-light
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sunlight (650-680nm)
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what is far-red-light
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shade (710-740nm)
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How does a phytochrome stimulate germination
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Red light is absorbed by the phytochrome in the seed and it then switched to far red light which stimulates germination.
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How does a phytochrome inhibit germination
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far red light is absorbed by the phytochrome in the seed and it then switches to red light which signals to inhibit germination
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What is etiolation
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The process plants go through when they are pale (low to no chlorophyll) with long stems because of elongation of the internode. They do this in an attempt to find the light again. This is especially seen in germination
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Red light .....
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reverses the effects of a long night
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red light followed by far red light...
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causes no change
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Flowering is caused by
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the hormone florigen produced by the FT gene
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Phytochromes monitor
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time periods and trigger a clock protein when it is the right time to flower. The protein is stabilized by the phytochrome
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Long day plants have..... levels of ........
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high levels of the clock protein which stimulates the synthesis of the flowering protein
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The clock protein stimulates
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the synthesis of the flowering protein
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Short day plants have..... levels of......
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high levels of the clock protein (constan-co) but in short day plants it inhibits the synthesis of the flowering protein.
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Sand has...
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a low availability of water, low availability of nutrients, a high availability of oxygen, and a high root penetration ability
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Clay and Organic matter have
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high water availability, high nutrient availability, but organic matter has a high o2 availability (clay doesn't), and a high root penetration ability (clay doesn't).
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Stomata are responsible for what
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gas exchange and water loss
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What are trichomes
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Protective, hair-like appendages made up of specialized epidermal cells.
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What are parenchyma cells
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They are where photosynthesis occurs and the storage of starches happens. They are also totipotent, meaning they can divide and develop into a mature plant which is important in healing wounds.
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What do collenchyma cells do
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They elongate and stretch to provide support to the growing tissues/shoots
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What is sclerenchyma
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it is a cell that produces a secondary cell wall containing the tough, rigid compound lignin and cellulose. They support actively growing parts of the plant
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Where do parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma come from
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Ground meristem/ground tissue
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Where do xylem and phloem come from
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Procambium/vascular tissue
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What is xylem
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It is vascular tissue that conducts water and dissolved ions in one direction from roots to shoots
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What is phloem
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Vascular tissue that conducts sugar, amino acids, chemical signals, and other substances from roots to shoots and shoots to roots
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What are sieve members
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long, thin ells that have perforated ends called sieve plates that are responsible for transporting sugars and other nutrients
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Cations tend to....... and anions tend to......
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cations tend to bind to soil particles and anions tend to stay in solution
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What is cation exchange
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When soil particles bind with cation particles or protons and then the soil particles release bound cations which can be taken up by the roots
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Anions are ....
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Readily available in solution for the plant to take up, but they may be washed away easily.
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What is leaching
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When nutrients are lost due to movement of water through the soil
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Where are basic soils found
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In areas rich with limestone, because when limestone interacts with water it releases calcium ions which cling to soil particles which then react with the Co2 and form bicarbonate ions lowering the H+ concentration and raising the pH
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Where do you find acidic soil
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In areas with an abundance of humus which produces carbonic acid, phosphoric acid, or nitric acid.
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