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127 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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3 organs of plants
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roots, stems, leaves
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Vegetables vs. fruits
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veggies from 3 organs (roots, stems, leaves) and don't contain seeds like fruits
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Root
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-below ground
-first structure to emerge from seed when it germinates -main functions: absorption of water and minerals and anchoring plant in soil |
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Stem
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-above ground
-support leaves for max photosynthesis -support flowers to attract pollinators -conduct food and water (water evaporates through leaves, food made in leaves stored in roots) |
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Leaf
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-usually green
-on stem -photosynthesis -transpiration (evaporation of water through holes, cools plant) |
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Carrots
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-Apiaceae
-Biennial -We eat roots -Good source of potassium, carbs (sugar), calcium -originally purple, we selected for orange -Queen Anne's Lace = Wild Carrot |
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Biennial
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-carrots
-lives for 2 years, stores excess food in roots for 1 years, then sprouts in spring 2nd year -we eat carrots after 1st year |
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Lettuce
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-Asteraceae
-Annual -We eat leaves -Mostly water |
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Iceberg Lettuce
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-Most popular lettuce in the U.S.
-Dense, compact, easier to ship -Least nutritious - negative calorie food |
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Brassicaceae
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cabbage, brussel sprouts, broccoli, cauliflower, kohlrabi
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Cabbage
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-stem doesn't elongate, leaves close together
-we eat leaves -peasant food because can be harvested late and stores well -shredded, fermented, preserved: sauerkraut, kimchi |
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Brussels Sprouts
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-We eat lateral buds (notch between leaf and stem that can grow into a branch)
-branches don't elongate- look like baby cabbages |
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Broccoli
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-we eat flower buds and stems
-turns yellow when old because flower buds opening to reveal yellow petals |
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Cauliflower
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-mutation - stem divides repeatedly
-we eat stem tips -head wrapped with leaves to keep white |
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broccoflower
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-cauliflower + chlorophyll
-not as mild, chlorophyll is bitter |
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orange cauliflower
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naturally occurring mutation, contains carotene
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Kohlrabi
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-we eat base of swollen stem
-tastes similar to broccoli but usually milder |
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Asparagus
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-Asparagaceae
-perennial (many years) -we eat young stems |
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Asparagus - urine smell
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-40-45% of population
-thioesters (smelly compounds) -very fast-acting, within 30 minutes of eating -some people don't make compounds, some do but can't smell them |
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Fruit
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-mature ovary
-usually contains seeds -sometimes from 1 carpel or several |
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Locule
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chamber in fruit containing seeds
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Pericarp
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fruit wall
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Berry
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-simple fruit (1 carpel)
-fleshy -thin skin, fleshy pericarp, containing 1 - many seeds -tomatoes, grapes |
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Pome
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-simple fruit (1 carpel)
-fleshy -has large amount of accessory tissue from flower -apple |
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Hespiridium
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-simple fruit (1 carpel)
-fleshy -berry with tough, leathery rind -citrus (lemons, limes, kumquats, oranges) |
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Dry Dehiscent
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-simple (1 carpel)
-dehiscent (they OPEN) -cotton, milkweed |
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Dry Indehiscent
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-simple (1 carpel)
-Indehiscent (don't open) -Sunflower "seed" is actually a fruit -Grain, wheat, maple |
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Aggregate fruits
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Derived from many carpels in 1 flower - raspberries, strawberries
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Multiple fruits
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-Derived from many flowers in inflorescence (bunch of flowers on same major stem)
-pattern on pineapples- each is flower -figs - flowers on the inside |
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How are figs pollinated?
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-female wasp comes into hole in fig
-lays eggs in female flowers at bottom of fit -eggs hatch, males first, which impregnate female eggs -males die, females fly out and get pollen from male flowers at top of fig on their bodies -go to other figs and bring pollen to female flowers |
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Tomato
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-Native to Central and South American
-Domesticated in Mexico -Brought to Europe by Spanish (though of as aphrodisiac, poisonous) -Very pop. in U.S., 80 lbs a year -China, U.S. top producers -lycopene, vitamin C -over 2900 cultivars |
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Colonel Johnson
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-1820s, American
-said he would eat a bushel of tomatoes in town square to prove they they weren't poisonous |
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Antioxidants get rid of...
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free radicals
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Apples
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-Native to Asia
-more than 7500 cultivars -pears - close relatives -grafting |
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Grafting process
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-asexual
-hearty trees make mealy apples -take root (stock) from hearty tree, take branch (scion) from tree with good fruit -sharpen scion, cut hole in stock, stick in stock, cover with tar -grow together |
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Johnny Appleseed
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-John Chapman
-immigrants brought apples from Europe -Leave PA every spring to frontier in Ohio and Indiana to find where people would settle -plant seeds, sell trees 2-3 years later so people could make cider |
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Citrus
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-Native to SE Asia
-Many different fruits -Brazil, China top producers -Vitamin C -Oranges turn orange not when they are ripe but when temperature drops |
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Navel Oranges
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-flower produces abnormal ovary on top of regular one
-stress aborts the seeds |
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Dangers of Grapefruit
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-interaction with meds like antihistamines, Lipitor, high blood pressure, antibiotics...can increase concentration and reduce effectiveness or result in death
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Origin of peaches
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china
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Origins of Bananas
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SE Asia
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Origin of Watermelons
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Africa
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Origin of Pineapples
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Latin America
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Kiwifruit
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-native to China
-introduced to New Zealand in 1904, Chinese Gooseberry --changed name to kiwifruit because resembles kiwi -U.S. in the 1980s, CA |
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Cherimoya
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-Tree fruit
-Native to upland of Peru and Ecuador -cultivated by Incas -aristocrat of fruits - grown in Chile, Spain, Israel |
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Atemoya
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-hybrid: cross between Cherimoya and sugar apple
-tolerant of environmental conditions |
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Carambola
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-Malaysia
-Star fruit -Grown throughout tropics |
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Durians
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-king of fruit in SE Asia
-very good tasting, smell awful (sulfur) -Seldom shipped out of Asia; U.S. still largest importer |
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Current population and number chronically hungry
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6.8 bil., 1 bil
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Green Revolution
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-1943, Mexico pop. growing rapidly, very little wheat
-U.S. wanted to grow rubber, best place is latin America, Mexico is "least communist" -Rockefeller Foundation funded research to increase yield of wheat -Norman Borlaug developed high-yielding wheat (didn't lodge, resistant to rust, insensitive to daylength) -1964 - Mexico exported 500,000 tons of wheat |
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Problems of high yield (list)
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-Chemical fertilizers and pesticides
-plentiful water -mechanized farming -monoculture |
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Fertilizer and pesticide problems
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-high energy costs (lot of oil to manufacture)
-eutrophication of rivers (nutrients go into water, algae and plankton grow, use up oxygen, fish die) -reduce biodiversity (broad-spectrum) -contaminate water and soil |
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Water problems
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-87% of fresh water supply goes to agriculture
-salinization of soil (water evaporates in air, leaves minerals from soil behind, too much salt in soil) |
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Mechanization
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-Tractors compact soil, roots can't get the oxygen they need
-Tilling the topsoil loses the nutrients (they blow or wash away) -depends on fossil fuels for tractors |
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Monoculture
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-loss of biodiversity
-pests and diseases overcome resistance of plants |
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Solutions to mechanization problems
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-low till agriculture (lessens soil erosion, fuel use, but pests from underground may ruin crops)
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Solutions to pesticide problems
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-use beneficial insects such as red lady bugs
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Solutions to water problems
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-low pressure spray or drip irrigation
-reduces water use, but circumference is not great and lots of man labor is needed to ensure holes in hose are not clogged |
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Quinoa
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-vital food crop in high Andes
-12-18% protein -high in essential amino acids (lysine and methionine) -58-68% carbs (5% sugar) -4%-9% fat content -calcium and phosphorous |
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Amaranth
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-edible leaves
-seeds potential nongrass cereals -easy to digest -protein 12.5-17.6% -squalene (high priced hydrocarbon for cosmetics and synthetic steroids) -really small grains |
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Tarwi
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-South American legume
-46% protein, 20% oil content (seeds rival soybean) -lysine -nitrogen fixing |
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Tamarillo and Naranjilla
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-relatives of tomato from South America
-high in several vitamins (A, B6, C, and E) |
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OCA
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-tuber crop from Andes
-Acidic (oxalic acid) - |
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Genetic Engineering
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-take train from something (anything, not just plants) and put in another
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DNA
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polymer of 4 bases, 2 strands in double helix, instructions for everything in organism
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gene
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length of DNA which codes for a particular trait
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Transgenic
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contains gene(s) from a different species
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basic steps to GE (list)
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1. Isolate gene
2. clone gene 3. introduce gene into target cell 4. select for desired train 5. make sure gene is expressed the way you intended |
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Isolate gene
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-most difficult
-start with protein with train, use amino acid sequence of protein to guess DNA sequence of gene -amino acid - RNA - DNA -restriction enzyme cut DNA at precise regions to isolate |
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Clone gene
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-attach reporter gene (often antibiotic resistance)
-use PCR (polymerase chain reaction) to make millions of copies of gene |
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Introduce gene into cell/organism
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-Take tiny pellets of gold, soak them in gene solution
-some pellets go too fast and go out of the cell, some too slow and bounce off cell |
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Select for desired trait
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-Grow plant cells on media designed to show reporter gene
-if reporter gene = antibiotic resistance, grow cells on media containing antibiotic -if cells grow, they must contain gene construct |
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Check for proper expression
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-allow plant cells tor grow into plants, make sure trait is what you predicted
-clone plant or harvest seeds to make more plants |
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Uses for GE (list)
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-herbicide resistance
-insect resistance -nutritional enhancement |
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Herbicide resistance
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broad spectrum herbicides kill plants, GE plants unaffected
-must use seeds and herbicide from same company |
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Insect resistance
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-corn is susceptible to insect damage (corn borer)
-some bacteria produce insecticide -pollen can also contain it, so bad if it blows off on another plant |
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Nutritional enhancement
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-make white rice (Golden Rice) contain beta-carotene to prevent blindness
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Concerns about GE
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-may code for allergen
-plant may breed and transfer herbicide resistance to weed -tinkering with nature is not always ethical -we don't know what can happen (Kudzo with cows) |
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Characteristics of herbs and spices
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-contain volatile oils (evaporate quickly, lots of taste and smell)
-can prevent food from rotting -secondary plant products, not necessary for metabolism |
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Herb
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leafy plant part, can be used fresh or dry
EX: Basil |
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Spice
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non-leafy plant part, only used dry, bark
EX: Cinnamon |
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Cinnamon and Cassia
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-we mostly eat cassia
-native to tropical Asia -bark from trees -scraped form tree, curled into quills |
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Black pepper
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-most common spice
-native to tropical Asia -berries picked green, ferment in sun until they are black |
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white pepper
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-berry allowed to ripen, turn red
-pericarp removed -mild flavor -smells like urine |
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pink pepper
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-different plant than white and black (brazilian holly, or pepper bush)
-slightly sweet -poison ivy family |
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Cloves
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-one of the most powerful spices
-tropical Asia -unopened flower buds -excellent preservative (ham) |
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Nutmeg and Mace
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-same fruit
-nutmeg is seed, mace is covering of seed -hallucinogenic (bad side effects) -tropical Asia |
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Ginger and Turmeric
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-both rhizomes
-Tropical Asia -Asian cuisine uses ginger, ginger ale, ginger beer -Curry powder uses turmeric, may have chemotherapeutic properties |
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Saffron
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-most expensive
-native to temperate Eurasia -dry stigma to make saffron -intense yellow color |
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Chili peppers
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-native to Americas
-Capsaicin = burning sensation -block pain reception because it can overwhelm pain receptors -Scoville unit - taste and dilute 10 times with water |
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Vanilla
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-only spice from orchid
-native to Americas -fruits picked, alternately wrapped up and put in hot sun, takes several months |
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Mint Family - Lamiaceae
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-Native to Mediterranean
-leaves |
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Spearmint, Peppermint
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flavoring in toothpaste, etc.
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Basil
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-tastes good with tomatoes
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Oregano
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-popular after WWII because soldiers went to Italy and tried it on pizza
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Rosemary
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-needle-like leaves
-piney, lemony flavor |
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Sage
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-essential oils mix well with fats like those in meats
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Parsley family- apiaceae
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-Native to Mediterranean
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Parsley
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-most common herb in U.S.
-vitamins A and C -breath freshener -we eat leaf |
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Dill
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-we eat leaf and fruits
-used in pickling |
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Caraway
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-we eat fruit
-makes rye bread taste bad |
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Mustard family - Brassicaceae
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mustard (seed) - several varieties - sulfur compounds give different levels of hottness
horseradish (root) - hot flavor compounds found in different cells, combine when grated, evaporates very quick |
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onion family - Alliaceae
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-pungent quality due to sulfur compounds
-sulfuric acid made when combined with water (e.g. tears) -onion is one large bulb, garlic is a cluster of bulbs (cloves) |
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Direct dyes
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soluble in water and readily picked up by fiber; Turmeric and safflower are direct dyes that yield a yellow hue
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Mordant dyes
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do not impart their color directly, fiber must be treated with chemical agent called a mordant; it fixes the dye to the fabric
-mordants: alum, oak gall |
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Vat dye
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-insoluble and must be rendered soluble by the actiion of chemical agents or microorganisms, dye is oxidized when it hits air
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Plant fibers
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cellulose and lignin (lignin is much harder than cellulose, you want a good amount of cellulose)
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Types of fibers
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-surface fibers- surface of seeds, fruits, leaves, cotton
-bast fibers - stems from dicots, broad leaves like maple, linen -leaf fibers - leaves of monocots, one leaf like grass, sisal |
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Fiber extraction - ginning
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-sawblades snag cotton and pull through a hole that seeds can go through
-brush brushes the cotton off the seed |
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Fiber extraction - retting
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plant parts are kept in still water, bacteria digest them except for the fiber part
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Fiber Extraction - decortication
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-excess material is beaten and scraped of soft material
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Processing
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Fibers are carded (combed parallel to one another), spun into thread (gathered and twisted together and then woven into fabric
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Cotton
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-surface fiber from seed coat
-most popular fiber in world -China, India top produces -have natural twist excellent for spinning -pima and Egyptian cotton have longer fibers (silkier thread) |
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Finishing
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Cotton can be mercerized (stretched tighly in bath of sodium hydroxide - drain cleaner- swelling fibers and increasing luster, dye uptake, and durability)
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Permanent Press
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-fabric treated with chemicals that cross-link the cellulose molecules, prevents wrinkles and/or sets creases
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Linen
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-bast fiber from flax stem
-oldest textile fiber -China, France top producers -long, straight fibers, much stronger than cotton -manual labor intensive, more expensive -used mostly for clothing |
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Sisal
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-leaf fiber (from leave)
-native to Central America -leaves cut from plant -fed into rollers -decorticated -used for rope, sacks -same plant for tequila |
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first instruments
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-percussion such as rattls or wooden sticks
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Gourds and instruments
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-used as a resonator for primitive stringed instruments
-rattle -maracas -drums -some wind instruments -sitar, banjos, fiddles, harps -marimbas and xylophones |
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Reeds
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-giant reed native to Mediterranean region (arundo donax) - stems to make wind instruments
-best known for vibrating air in wind instruments |
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Wood and instruments
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-African blackwood common for clarinets but may be extinct
-spruce and maple = violin |
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Wood (general)
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-xylem - water-conducting tissue
-softwood from conifers (white pine, evergreen, spruce, fir, redwood) -hardwood from angiosperms (oak, cherry, maple, mahoganey, teak) |
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Wood products (list)
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-veneer
-plywood -paper |
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Veneer
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-sheets of log, uniform thickness
-usually stuck to another surface -used to make cheaper woods look more expensive |
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Plywood
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-sheets of thick veneer glued together
-90 degree angles so that they don't crack (same grain) |
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Paper
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-early paper from Egypt (stems from papyrus or rice lay next and across each other and matted together)
-true paper made by Chinese , actual fibers, mat these together -European paper made from cotton rags -now wood is used (pine) because it grows fast and is strong (cells are similar diameter throughout) |
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Paper making
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-wood ground up with water or cooked with solvents to separate fibers
-pulp is slurry of wood fibers -pulp floated onto screen, water drains, pressed to mat fibers then dried -covered with coating to make it glossy |
