Physiologyexam1_Cellstructure

Front 1

A theory that all living structures are made up of cells

Back 1

cell theory

Front 2

what are the 2 types of cells

Back 2

prokaryotes & eukaryotes

Front 3

What is prokaryote?

Back 3

- prenucleus e.g. bacteria
- lack nuclear membrane
- often have a cell wall surrounding a plasma membrane
- no well-defined cytoskeleton

Front 4

What is eukaryotes?

Back 4

1. true nucleus
2. nucleus is well-defined = nuclear envelope
3. made up of a bilayer plasma membrane & specialized organelles
4. can also have a cell wall e.g. plants
- well defined cytoskeleton for suppor and shape

Front 5

What is the cellular anatomy of a typical cell?

Back 5

1. nucleus
2. cell membrane
3. cytoplasm (cytosol, cytoskeleton)
4. cytoplasmic organelles (membraneous, non-membraneous)

Front 6

It is bound by a double phospholipid membrane or nuclear membrane.

Back 6

Nucleus

Front 7

It contains nuclear pores (channels of 100 proteins)

Back 7

Nuclear membrane

Front 8

It allows the entry and exit of materials into nucleoplasm e.g. mRNA

Back 8

Nuclear membrane

Front 9

It is connected to Endoplasmic Reticulum (protein synthesis)

Back 9

Nuclear envelope

Front 10

The loosely coiled fibers of DNA wrapped around proteins

Back 10

chromatin

Front 11

What is the model of histones?

Back 11

beads of string

Front 12

the proteins in the nucleus is called?

Back 12

histones "beads of string" model

Front 13

the histone DNA complex is called

Back 13

nucleosome

Front 14

What are the two forms of chromatin?

Back 14

1. euchromatin (lighter)
2. heterochromatin (condensed or darker)- lies against nuclear envelope in patches and is broken up at the site of the nuclear pore

Front 15

What happens to chromatin during cell replication?

Back 15

chromatin condenses to chromosomes

Front 16

How many chromosomes in a human being?

Back 16

23 pairs of chromosomes, or total of 46 chromosomes

Front 17

It is the specialized fluid of the nucleus where the chromatin suspends

Back 17

nucleoplasm

Front 18

Nucleoplasm contains a network of filaments called?

Back 18

nuclear matrix that helps to organize the chromatin (euchromatin & heterochromatin)

Front 19

It helps in DNA replication & transcription

Back 19

Nucleoplasm

Front 20

What is the other term for DNA replication & transcription?

Back 20

conversion of DNA to RNA

Front 21

it is the little nucleus and dense body of DNA and protein

Back 21

Nucleolus

Front 22

It is the site of ribosome production and rRna - migrate out

Back 22

Nucleolus

Front 23

It is the cluster of DNA, RNA and protein with no defining membrane

Back 23

Nucleolus

Front 24

for the assembly of rRNA with the protein subunits of the ribosome?

Back 24

Nucleolus

Front 25

very prominent in cells that produce high amount of proteins (e.g. neurons)

Back 25

Nucleolus

Front 26

It is the study of genome of animals and humans and their relationship to the function of the organism

Back 26

Genomics

Front 27

What are the genetic make up of an individuals

Back 27

genome (genes + junk DNA)

Front 28

How many billion of nucleotides there is in the average human being?

Back 28

3.2 billion

Front 29

What is the life cycle of humans?

Back 29

1. meoisis
2. fertilization
3. zygone 2n
4. mitosis

Front 30

any cell within the body other than an egg or sperm?

Back 30

somatic cell

Front 31

what do you call the sex cell?

Back 31

germ cell or gamete

Front 32

How many set of cells a human being has?

Back 32

pairs of 23 chromosomes which is diploid 2n = 46

Front 33

How many set of cell gamete has?

Back 33

haploid n = 23

Front 34

What is the internal clock of every cell?

Back 34

Cell Life Cycle

Front 35

This clock defines the periods of synthesis and replication of a cell

Back 35

Cell Life Cycle - during this period, cells replicate themselves

Front 36

in which process the cell replication occurs

Back 36

mitosis

Front 37

What are the Cell Life Cycle

Back 37

1. Interphase
2. Prophase
3. Metaphase
4. Anaphase
5. Telophase
6. Cytokinesis

Front 38

What are the stages of Interphase?

Back 38

G1
G0
S
G2

Front 39

G1 phase (8 or more hours)

Back 39

Normal cell functions, growth, protein synthesis, organelle replication, centriole replication, shorter time for embryonic and cancer cells

Front 40

G0 phase (??)

Back 40

specialized cell functions (neurons)

Front 41

S phase (6 to 8 hrs)

Back 41

DNA replicates, histones are synthesized, once the cell enters S, it must complete the cycle and divide

Front 42

G2 phase (2 to 5 hrs)

Back 42

proteins are synthesized (transcription/translation)

Front 43

Mitosis

Back 43

1 to 3 hrs

Front 44

What is Mitosis?

Back 44

Nuclear division that produces two daughter cells with the same number and kinds of chromosomes as the parental cell

Front 45

It is a condensed DNA in the form of chromatid

Back 45

Chromosome

Front 46

What joins the two sister chromatids (duplication of chromosomes)

Back 46

centromere

Front 47

What happens in Prophase?

Back 47

-chromatin condensed to become visible
- nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear
- spindle forms bet. the centrioles
- centrioles migrate to opposite poles of the cell

Front 48

What happens in metaphase?

Back 48

the chromosomes move to a central zone = metaphase plate, line up in the middle

Front 49

How are the chromosomes in metaphase connect to the spindle?

Back 49

via kinetochore

Front 50

It is a specialized attachment site at the centromere, where the chromosome attaches to a microtubule?

Back 50

kinetochore

Front 51

The microtubules that bind a chromosome

Back 51

chromosomal microtubules or kinetochore microtubules

Front 52

What happens in Anaphase?

Back 52

the chromatid pairs split up into daugthe chromosomes, they are pulled apart by the action of the spindle, one DC goes to one centriole and the other the opposite

Front 53

What is telophase?

Back 53

opposite of Prophase, nuclear envelope reforms, spindle disappear, nucleolus reappear, DC uncoils and cytokinesis follows

Front 54

What is cytokinesis

Back 54

separation into two cells,

Front 55

It is the slight indentation around the circumference of the cell.

Back 55

cleavage furrow

Front 56

the mechanism where the actin filaments then assemble to form a contractile ring which decreases in size

Back 56

purse string

Front 57

Meiosis undergo

Back 57

Meiosis I and II

Front 58

What is the difference of Mitosis and Meiosis?

Back 58

In Meiosis, chromosomes paired up forming tetrads, and in metaphase, they paired up instead of lining up like in mitosis, there is also an occurence of crossing-over, also meiosis produces 4 daugther cells, while mitosis only 2 daugther cells

Front 59

It is the production of sperm and eggs occurs through meiosis?

Back 59

Spermatogenesis

Front 60

It is the unequal division of the primary oocyte (2n) forms the secondary oocyte and a polar body.

Back 60

Oogenesis

Front 61

What are the base of DNA?

Back 61

Adenosine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine

Front 62

it is a double stranded, held together by hydrogen bonds bet. complementary base pairs

Back 62

DNA

Front 63

What specific direction a DNA must grow and why?

Back 63

5' to 3' bec. the nucleotides are joined in this way- one end is 5 phospate group and the other end is 3' OH group.

Front 64

What do you call the complementrary strand of DNA?

Back 64

anti-sense strand

Front 65

What is the enzyme of DNA that attaches to each strand.

Back 65

DNA polymerase.

Front 66

Why all DNA polymerase require a primer?

Back 66

to elongate from, small piece of RNA binds to the DNA strand and acts a primer, for the DNA polymerase, bec DNA is a helicase enzyme that will always want to coil

Front 67

What is a Leading strand of replication?

Back 67

Replicating without problem, one strand, because the direction is 5' to 3'

Front 68

What is the problem of the second strand of DNA in the opposite direction?

Back 68

It cannot be replicated continuously due to 3' to 5'

Front 69

What is Lagging strand?

Back 69

the second strand of DNA in the opposite direction that can't replicated continuously.

Front 70

What is the solution for Lagging strand?

Back 70

Replicate it in chuncks or Okazaki fragments.

Front 71

Integrity of the cell, controls transport ”selectively permeable” –

Back 71

cell membrane or plasma membrane

Front 72

Membrane that excludes the unwanted materials from entering the cell and maintains the ionic concentration of the cell & osmotic pressure of the cytosol –

Back 72

cell membrane

Front 73

It composed of the cell membrane with embedded proteins and carbohydrates –

Back 73

lipid bilayers

Front 74

This layer composed of 75% phospholipids and also made up of cholesterol and glycolipids –

Back 74

lipid bilayer

Front 75

It is composed of glycerol and 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group –

Back 75

phospholipids

Front 76

What are the two components of membrane proteins –

Back 76

1. peripheral or extrinsic 2. integral or intrinsic

Front 77

It is the membrane proteins that bind to the outside only e.g. enzymes –

Back 77

peripheral or extrinsic

Front 78

It is the membrane proteins that is globular or amphipathic, can span 1 or both layers, most are transmembrane –

Back 78

integral or intrinsic

Front 79

What are the carbohydrates that attach to lipid that is usually proteins –

Back 79

glycoproteins and glycolipids

Front 80

What is the superficial coat form from glycoprotein and glycolipids around the cell –

Back 80

glycocalyx

Front 81

What are the functions of integral proteins –

Back 81

1. channel 2. transporter 3. receptor 4. enzyme 5. linkers 6. cell-identity markers

Front 82

It is the function of integral proteins that allow specific substances to move through water-filled pore –

Back 82

channel e.g. plasma membrane

Front 83

It is the function of integral proteins that transports specific substance across membrane by changing shape –

Back 83

transporter e.g. amino acids enter cell membrane via transporter

Front 84

It is the function of integral proteins that recognizes specific ligands and alters cell functions in some way –

Back 84

receptor

Front 85

It is the function of integral protein that anchor proteins of the PM to the protein filaments inside or to neighboring cells.-

Back 85

linkers

Front 86

It is the function of integral protein that is used in identifying self by the immune system –

Back 86

cell-identifying markers

Front 87

What are the two types of transport –

Back 87

Active and Passive

Front 88

What is a Passive Transport –

Back 88

Diffusion, Osmosis and Facilitated

Front 89

What is Active transport –

Back 89

ATP, Exocytosis, Endocytosis

Front 90

Inside of the cell is more negatively charged –

Back 90

true

Front 91

It is the unequal distribution of ion, the difference in electrical charge between inside and outside –

Back 91

electrical gradient

Front 92

If electrical gradient occurs in PM, -

Back 92

called membrane potential

Front 93

It is a property of PM that determines its effectiveness –

Back 93

permeability

Front 94

It is a passive transport that is a movement of material from high to low –

Back 94

Diffusion

Front 95

What are the three ways for diffusion –

Back 95

1. thru lipid bilayer (lipid soluble, alchol, gases, ammonia, fat-soluble vitamins 2. thru a channel (small ions)- some are gated – open and close 3 facilitated diffusion – larger molecule too big for channels

Front 96

In osmosis, membrane is permeable to water and not solute, but whose concentration causes the water to move –

Back 96

solute

Front 97

It is important in determining how much fluid remains in your blood and how much leaves to surround the cells in your tissues –

Back 97

osmotic pressure

Front 98

Factor that causes a water to enter or leave the cell -

Back 98

Tonicity , or concentration of a specific solute surrounding a cell.

Front 99

It is a transport where molecules are moves against the concentration gradient –

Back 99

active transport

Front 100

It is a transport that requires a protein carrier called pump and ATP –

Back 100

active transport

Front 101

The kind of transport where energy stored in a concentration gradient is used to drive the transport of other materials –

Back 101

passive transport

Front 102

An opposite direction in passive transport –

Back 102

Na/Ca antiporter

Front 103

Flowing in the same direction –

Back 103

Na/glucose symporter

Front 104

It is the excretion of a substance outside the cell through the transport vesicle –

Back 104

exocytosis

Front 105

Absorbing of substance by cell –

Back 105

endocytosis

Front 106

What are the 3 types of endocytosis –

Back 106

1. pinocytes – cell drinking. 2. phagocytosis – cell eating 3. receptors-mediated – like HIV, binding of a ligand with its receptor

Front 107

It is a semi-fluid like jelly within the cell, divides into cytosol and organelles and also contains a supportive framework of proteins cytoskeleton –

Back 107

cytoplasm

Front 108

It contains intracellular fluid of the cell, about 55% if the cell’s volume and about 70-90% water –

Back 108

cytosol

Front 109

Difference between cytosol and ECF –

Back 109

cytosol – higher K, lower Na, higher concentration of dissolved and suspended proteins, lower concentration of carbohydrates, larger reserves of amino acids9anabolism); ECF – lower K, higher Na, lower concentration of dissolves and suspended proteins, higher concentration of carbohydrates, smaller reserves of amino acids

Front 110

It is the internal framework of the cell and gives the cytoplasm flexibility and strength –

Back 110

cytoskeleton

Front 111

What are the 3 majors component of cytoskeleton –

Back 111

microfilaments(Small), intermediate filaments, microtubules (big)

Front 112

It is made of thin filaments called actin –

Back 112

microfilaments

Front 113

It forms a dense network immediately under the PM and scattered throughout the cytoplasm –

Back 113

microfilaments

Front 114

What are the functions of microfilaments –

Back 114

1. anchor integral proteins and attaches them to the cytoplasm 2. interacts with larger filaments made up of myosin, results in active movement of the cell e.g. muscle cells or changes in cell shape.

Front 115

It provides much of the mechanical strength of the cell, give the cell its shape and provides support for cellular extension called microvili (small intestine) –

Back 115

microfilaments

Front 116

It is made up of vimentin, desmin or keratin –

Back 116

intermediate filaments

Front 117

It is a cytoskeleton that impart strength, stabilize organelles and transport materials –

Back 117

intermediate filaments

Front 118

Example of intermediate filaments that is use for transport of synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitter –

Back 118

neurofilaments

Front 119

What are the five major groups of intermediate filaments –

Back 119

type I – acidic keratins (epithelial), type II – basic keratins (epithelial), type III – vimentin (mesenchme):desmin(muscle) connective, type IV – neurofilaments (neuronal), type V – lamins A,B,C(all cells)

Front 120

It is a kind of cytoskeleton that are repeating units of tubulin –

Back 120

microtubules

Front 121

The assembly of microtubules is controlled by –

Back 121

MTOC (microtubule organizing center – located near the nucleus, centrosome)

Front 122

How many tubulins are present in microtubules –

Back 122

13 rows of tubulin

Front 123

Microtubules can be found as –

Back 123

single tube or a doublet and a triplet

Front 124

What are the functions of microtubules –

Back 124

cell shape & strength, organelles: anchor & movement, form the spindle (chromosome movement – mitosis), form many of the non-membranous organelles (cilia, flagella, centrioles)

Front 125

It is a non-membranous organelles that is a short cylinders of tubulin –

Back 125

9 microtubules triples

Front 126

Called a 9+0 array (9 peripherals triplets, 0 center), it is grouped together as arrays – arranged perpendicular to one another –

Back 126

centrioles

Front 127

It is part of a structure called the centrosome (centrioles _ pericentiolar material) –

Back 127

centrioles

Front 128

The role of this non-membranous in mitosis is spindle and chromosome alignment –

Back 128

centrioles

Front 129

It contains 9 groups of microtubules doublets surrounding a central pair –

Back 129

cilia

Front 130

Its function is cleansing and found in linings of several major organs covered with mucus e.g. lungs & intestines –

Back 130

cilia

Front 131

Resemble a cilia, much larger, found singly and function is to move a cell the the ECF –

Back 131

flagella found in sperm

Front 132

Organelles completely surrounded by a phospholipids bilayer similar to the PM surrounding the cell –

Back 132

membranous organelles

Front 133

Function is to synthesis (protein & phospholipids), storage (peptide strand translated by ribosomes) and transport (initial site of processing & sorting to transport to Golgi) of materials –

Back 133

ER

Front 134

What each layer of ER consists of –

Back 134

each sac or layer (cisternae), inside or each sac (lumen)

Front 135

What is the specific bonds that RER break downs –

Back 135

proteolytic cleavage

Front 136

It detoxifies drugs, alcohol ans free of ribosomes and no protein synthesis only lipids –

Back 136

SER

Front 137

It is considered a nonmembranous organelles for not having phospholipids bilayer –

Back 137

ribosomes

Front 138

It is the actual site of mRNA translation –

Back 138

ribosomes

Front 139

It float freely within the cytoplasm as groups –

Back 139

polyribosomes

Front 140

Stack of 3 to 20 flattened membrane sacs/cisternae -

Back 140

Golgi Apparatus

Front 141

What are the 3 levels of Golgi Apparatus –

Back 141

1. first stack, cis-face (from the RER, protein modification), 2. middle stack, medial-face (adds carbohydrates) 3. last stack, trans-face (modification and packaging into vesicles)

Front 142

It is the signal that tell the protein processed in the Golgi where to go –

Back 142

sorting signals

Front 143

Glycosylation –

Back 143

glycoprotein

Front 144

What is the enzyme that add the o-linked in the Golgi apparatus –

Back 144

glycosyltransferases

Front 145

N-linked is attached to what amino acids –

Back 145

asparagines

Front 146

It is a protein-specific enzyme that catalyzed the processing in golgi – ; catalyzed the inactive proproteins(synthesized larger protein in GA)

Back 146

proteases

Front 147

It is the site of energy production (ATP Production) –

Back 147

mitochondria

Front 148

The terminal stages occur in the mitochondria –

Back 148

oxidative phosphorylation

Front 149

In mitochondria what happens during cellular respiration –

Back 149

breakdown of glucose into water and CO2 results in the production of ATP

Front 150

It is the garbage disposal inside the cell –

Back 150

lysosomes

Front 151

It is the process of destroying worn cellular parts from the cell itself and recycles the usable components

Back 151

autophagy

Front 152

it is the garbage disposals of the cell and dismantle debris, eat foreign invaders/viruses taken in by endocytosis or phagocytosis

Back 152

lysosomes

Front 153

it is form by budding off the Golgi

Back 153

lysosomes

Front 154

vesicle sacs that contain powerful enzymes to breakdown substances into their component parts

Back 154

lysosomes (e.g.nucleases & proteases )

Front 155

breakdown RNA & DNA into nucleotides

Back 155

nucleases

Front 156

breakdown proteins into amino acids is done by enzyme?

Back 156

proteases

Front 157

What are over 60 enzymes within lysosomes

Back 157

acid hydrolases

Front 158

What acidic interior of lysosomes do:

Back 158

acidic interior - critical for function of these enzymes
9-created and maintained by a hydrogen pump that
transport H+ into the interior - Active transport
-chloride ions that diffuse in passively through a
chloride channel - forms hydrochloric acid (HCl)

Front 159

this orgranelles is abundant in liver and kidney cells

Back 159

perixosomes

Front 160

the perixosomes is the cell contains oxidases = enzymes that use oxygen to oxidize substances

Back 160

- such as peroxidase

Front 161

What outer membrane of perixomes do for having lot of enzyme:

Back 161

1. synthesis of bile acids
2. breakdown of lipids - oxidation of fatty acids and amino acids (normal metabolic process)
3. detoxification of alcohol

Front 162

What is the difference of Meiosis and Mitosis?

Back 162

Meiosis undergo 2 nuclear division, in metaphase, the chromosomes paired up forming tetrad and produced 4 DC, while in mitosis, in metaphase, chromosomes line up and only produce 2DC.

Front 163

It ensures genetic diversity by different combinations of chromosomes within
the resulting sex cells, fertilization results in different combinations

Back 163

crossing over

Front 164

It has 9+2 array and anchored to a basal body just beneath the cell surface. function in cleaning

Back 164

cilia

Front 165

Exposed portion of the cilia is covered by ?

Back 165

PM

Front 166

What is ciliary movement?

Back 166

Power stroke and recovery stroke

Front 167

Allows isolation of each individual organelle, so that components of each organell does not mix with the cytosol

Back 167

membraneous organelles

Front 168

small transport vesicles pinch off one organell, travel and then fuse to another organelle

Back 168

vesicular transport

Front 169

transport from the ribosomes across ER membrane requires ?

Back 169

signal sequence

Front 170

A complex of proteins will bind this signal in the cytoplasm

Back 170

signal recognition partcile (SRP)

Front 171

it is a formation of a hole in the ER membrane that will allow the entrance of the protein

Back 171

translocon

Front 172

provides the energy that will allow transports from ribosomes to ER membrane

Back 172

GTP

Front 173

actual site of mRNA translation

Back 173

peptide strand

Front 174

What are the 2 protein subunits of ribosomes in combination with RNA

Back 174

-large 60S subunit = 28S rRNA (ribosomal RNA) + 50 proteins
-small 40S subunit = 18S rRNA + 33 proteins

Front 175

Site of protein modification and final packaging of the finished protein into secretory vesicles (exocytosis or for use in the cytosol)

Back 175

Golgi Apparatus

Front 176

What are the targets of GA?

Back 176

1. secretory vesicles for exocytosis
2. membrane vesicles for incorporation into PM
3. transport vesicles for intracellular destinations e.g. digestive enzymes to lysosome (requires sorting signals)

Front 177

consists of an outer mitochondrial membrane, an inner mitochondrial membrane and a fluid-filled space

Back 177

mitochondrial matrix (contains ribosomes)

Front 178

What are the 2 membrane layers of mitochondria?

Back 178

outer - 50% lipid and 50% protein (very permeable)
inner - 20% lipid and 80% protein (less permeable)

Front 179

What the proteins, enzymes and pumps of mitochondria do?

Back 179

proteins - transport H out of the lumen (electrical gradient)
enzymes - use the Egradient to synthesis ATP
pumps - move ATP to cytosol

Front 180

it is the lumen of mitochondria where the breakdown of glucose into H2O and CO2 ends here and results in the production of ATP

Back 180

matrix

Front 181

What are the stages of Cellular Respiration?

Back 181

1. glycolysis
2. citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
3. electron transport chain

Front 182

What is the diagram of Cellular Respiration?

Back 182

glycogen ---> glucose --->(fats, glycerol) ---> pyruvate ---> acetyl coenzyme A (CoA) ---> Kreb cycle or citrci acid cycle --->electron transport system

Front 183

literally means splitting sugar

Back 183

glycolysis

Front 184

what is glycolysis

Back 184

literally means “splitting sugar”
conversion of glucose (6 carbon sugar) into 2 molecules of pyruvate (3 carbon sugar)
all intermediates between glucose and pyruvate are phosphorylated by enzymes
pyruvate is converted into acetyl-coenzyme A (Acetyl-CoA) which then enters the citric acid cycle
under aerobic conditions glucose is oxidized into pyruvate – Kreb’s cycle
under anaerobic conditions glucose is oxidized into pyruvate – converted into lactate (lactic acid)
reactions of glycolysis take place in the cytosol
main reactions of glycolysis phosphorylate glucose so it can be cleaved into a 3-carbon sugar for energy extraction
GAPDH to pyruvate is catalyzed by a series of conversion reactions that begins to create ATP
this pathway also creates the building blocks that are used for the synthesis of long chain fatty acids

Front 185

it is the conversion of glucose (6 carbon sugar) into 2 molecules of pyruvate (3 carbon sugar)

Back 185

glycolysis

Front 186

All intermediates between glucose and pyruvate are phosphorylated by ?

Back 186

enzyme

Front 187

pyruvate is converted into what kind of enzyme which enter the Kreb's cycle

Back 187

acetyl coenzyme A (with air, kreb's cycle, without air into lactic acid)

Front 188

Where is the reactions of glycolysis take place?

Back 188

cytosol

Front 189

this pathyway creates the building blocks that are used for the synthesis of long chain fatty acids

Back 189

glycolysis pathway

Front 190

other sugars we consume

Back 190

fructose (fruit sugar) and galactose

Front 191

All organism convert glucose into ________ using similar rxn's

Back 191

pyruvate

Front 192

3 ways to process pyruvate

Back 192

1. ethanol by yeast
2. lactate - absence of oxygen
3. acetyl CoA - major processor of pyruvate

Front 193

how is pyruvate processed by ethanol?

Back 193

pyruvate -> acetylaldehyde-> ethanol

Front 194

what regulated the ethanol process

Back 194

DH - Aldehyde dehydrogenase - removes H+ from one substrate and adds it to another

Front 195

opposite of DH (alcohol to aldehyde is catalyzed by what ?

Back 195

ADH - alcohol dehydrogenase

Front 196

where the citric acid cycle takes place

Back 196

matrix of mitochondria

Front 197

what is citric acid cycle or krebs cycle

Back 197

pyruvate is transported from the cytosol across the membranes of the mitochondria into its matrix
interacts with coenzyme A (mitochondrial enzyme) to produce acetyl-CoA
forms the waste product carbon dioxide (2 molecules)
Acetyl-CoA is converted into oxaloacetic acid -> citric acid
the citric acid is converted into a series of compounds that eventually regenerates OA acid
takes place in the matrix and inner membrane of the mitochondria
as these compounds form – 2 ATP are produced
these compounds are capable of storing high energy electrons in the form of NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
as the cycle runs NAD+ is reduced to form NADH and H+ (gains electrons)
this NADH will then enter the electron transport chain
while this cycle only runs in the presence of oxygen – no oxygen is used
NADH = electron carrier
NAD+ is capable of adding one H+ and 2 electrons
when a substance is reduced = oxidation reaction
when a substance is oxidized = reduction reaction

Front 198

what is the mitochondrial enzyme that interacts with pyruvate

Back 198

coenzyme A

Front 199

what is produce with the interaction of pyruvate and coenzyme A and waste product (CO2)

Back 199

acetyl coenzyme A

Front 200

acetyl coenzyme A is converted in oxaloacetic acid or ?

Back 200

citric acid

Front 201

all compounds form in mitochondria form ?

Back 201

2 ATP

Front 202

compounds in mitochondria matrix are capable of storing high energy electrons in the form of ?

Back 202

NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)

Front 203

as the cycle in mitochondria matix runs NAD+ is reduced into?

Back 203

NADH

Front 204

Processs of Electron Transport Chain

Back 204

protons are pumped from the matrix into the space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes by enzyme complexes
in addition, electrons are transferred from these complexes to oxygen eventually forming water and carbon dioxide
protons are taken from NADH and pumped across the inner mitochondrial membrane by NADH dehydrogenase
at the same time electrons are moved from NADH dehydrogenase to cytochrome c reductase (by Q = ubiquinone)
cytochrome c reductase pumps more protons (from water) across the membrane and more electrons are transferred to cytochrome c oxidase (by cytochrome c)
cytochrome c oxidase also pumps more protons (taken from water)
this creates a proton gradient = energy
as protons flow down their gradient back into the matrix, they pass through an enzyme called ATP synthase – which synthesizes ATP

Front 205

What pumps the proton taken from NADH to inner mitochondrial membrane

Back 205

NADH dehydrogenase

Front 206

where does the electrons from NADH dehydrogenase moved to

Back 206

cytochrome c reductase (by Q=ubiquinone)

Front 207

the pumping of more protons by cytochrome c oxidase creates a proton gradient which is

Back 207

energy

Front 208

which enzyme synthesis ATP from electron transport chain back to matrix

Back 208

ATP synthase

Front 209

what generates in peroxisomes that is oxidize by oxidases

Back 209

H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide)

Front 210

This organelle is corrosive and and contain catalases that break down peroxide down and convert H2O2 into

Back 210

water and oxygen

Front 211

What are the disease at the organelle level?

Back 211

1. Tay Sachs and lysosome
2. adrenoleukodystrophy and peroxisomes

Front 212

A disease lack one of the 40 lysosomal enzymes, produce a lysosomal storage disease

Back 212

Tay Sachs and lysosomes

Front 213

It is a build up of fatty material on nerve cells, failure of nervous system comm.

Back 213

tay sachs

Front 214

what generates in peroxisomes that is oxidize by oxidases

Back 214

H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide)

Front 215

peroxisomes lack an enzyme on the outer membrane which transports an essential
enzyme into the peroxisome
-leads to a build up of a long-chain fatty acid on cells of the
brain and spinal cord -> loss of the myelin sheath
-lethargy, skin darkens, blood sugar drops, altered heart rhythm imbalanced electrolytes, paralysis, death

Back 215

Adrenoleukodystrophy

Front 216

What slow adrenoleukodystrophy?

Back 216

slowed by a certain triglyceride found in rapeseed oil Lorenzo Odone = “Lorenzo’s Oil