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128 Cards in this Set

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Hematoxylin
*basic
*blue/purple-colored
*molecules carry positive charge-->selectively bind to negatively-charged structures in a cell
*so stains blue/purple: dna, nuclei, ribosomes, chief cells, any cell with a high concentration of ribosomes or RER
basophilic
a structure which has a net negative charge so as to interact with a basic stain
Eosin
stain
*acidic
*red-colored
*carries negative charge
*bind to positively charged structures: proteins, mitochondria, parietal cells
Eosin
stain
*acidic
*red-colored
*carries negative charge
*bind to positively charged structures: proteins, mitochondria, parietal cells
acidophilic
structures which bind acidic stains such as eosin
euchromatic
(eu- "true") stained lightly, unwound DNA (probably active making proteins)
heterocromatic
stains dark, wound DNA inside nucleus (not making active proteins)
nissl body
basophilic structures that fill the soma and extend into the dendrites; clumps of ribosomes
how do you identify an axon histologically
* lack nissl substance
* common diameter
* don't branch
alpha motor neurons innervate...
extrafusal muscle fibers
gamma motor neurons innervate...
innervate intrafusal muscle fibers
isozyme
enzymes that differ in amino acid sequence but catalyze the same chemical reaction
functions of auaporins
REGULATE CELL VOLUME

secretion/absorption of CSF
generation of aqueous humor in the eyes
secretion of tears saliva sweat and bile
renal concentratiion in urine
gastointestinal absorption of water/secretion of water into the gi tract
Normal body fluids are about ___ mOsm
300 milli0osmoles/liter (mOsm)
In the equation for osmotic pressure pi = RT Delta(C), pi =
pi = 19.3 mmHg/mOsm x Delta(C)
oncotic pressure
a form of osmotic pressure exerted by proteins in blood plasma that usually tends to pull water into the circulatory system.
1 torr = ___ mm hg = ___ Pa
1 torr = 1 mm Hg = 133Pa
nerve fibers that release acetylcholine (ach) as their NT are referred to as
cholinergic
nerve fibers that release noreinephrine are called
adrenergic
The inside of the adrenal gland is called
the medulla
parasympathetic stimulation of GI exocrine gland secretion controls
volume/enzyme content of secretion
sympathetic stimulation of GI exocrine gland secretion controls
mucus content
which structures receive only sympathetic innervation
smooth muscle and glands of the skin/parasympathetic nerves do not distribute to the body wall ALSO most blood vessels
preganglionic sympathetic motor neurons occur between which spinal cord levels
T1-L2 (although they can be found as high as C8 and as low as L3)
preganglionic cells are clustered in which spinal cord segment..
intermediolateral cell column and is largely organized ipsilaterally
a negative resting potential means..
the inside of the cell is negatively charged wrt the outside
cations have more _____ charge and are attracted towards the ____
cations have more positive charge and are attracted towards the negative electrode
anions have more _____ charge and are attracted towards the ____
anions have more positive charge and are attracted towards the positive electrode
The exchange of the K/NA pump is ___ K for every ___ Na
2 K for every 3 Na
(If you can) explain the apparent contradiction between electroneutrality and membrane potential
A potential depends on a charge asymmetry, but electroneutrality asummes that the charge outside is bulk neutral and inside bulk neutral. Ion exchange preserves electroneutrality, but a difference in relative permibabilties set up a potential in the MEMBRANE that keeps the ion exchange electroneutral
hyperosmotic
bath osmolarity > initial cell osmolarity --> cell shirnks
isomotic
bath osmolarity = cell osmolarity --> nothing happens
hypoosmotic
bath osmolarity < intitial cell osmolarity (cell expands)
Equation for osmolarity
φ is the osmotic coefficient, which accounts for the degree of non-ideality of the solution. In the simplest case it is the degree of dissociation of the solute. Then, φ is between 0 and 1 where 1 indicates 100% dissociation. However, φ can also be larger than 1 (e.g. for sucrose). For salts, electrostatic effects cause φ to be smaller than 1 even if 100% dissociation occurs (see Debye-Hückel equation);
n is the number of particles (e.g. ions) into which a molecule dissociates. For example: glucose has n of 1, while NaCl has n of 2;
C is the molar concentration of the solute;
the index i represents the identity of a particular solute.
Which formula should you use to determine how much a cell will shrink/grow when placed into a bath?
Ci/Cf = Vf/Vi

derived from Mi = Mf and M = CV
M = amount of solute
C concentration
V volume
What is the difference between tonicity and osmolarity
tonicity depends on solute permeabilites and what the cell eventually does, osmorality depends on current concentrations
isotonic saline is used to..
boost extracellular volume without effecting intracellular volume (because Na/Cl has very low permabilities)
D5W IV is used to
boost both extracellular and intracellular volumes (because is both isomotic and hypotonic)
hypertonic solution causes the cell
to shrink
hypotonic solution causes..
the cell to swell
Tonicity depends on ...
which side has the greater amount of impermeant solutes
What are the three modes of permeable solute exchange across a membrane
1) non-electrolyte equalizes concentration
2) a negative and positive ion moving in the same direction simultaneously
3) a 1-for-1 exchange of a cation (or anion)
radius of hydration is...
the radius of the ion with the water molecules surrounding it
What is the Nerst Equation
Calculates the equilibrium potential for a single species of ion

z_x: valence of the ion
c_x0: concentration of teh ion ouside
c_xi: concentration of the ion inside
extracellular fluid contains ____(ions) and intracellular contains ___(ions)
K inside, Na/Cl outside
The only ion that has significant changes in concentration when crossing the membrane
Ca++ because most cells already have a very LOW [Ca++]
Typical equilibrium potentials for K, Na, Cl?
E_K = -100, E_Na = +50, E_Cl = -70 mV
What is the equation for the resting membrane potential.
resting membrane potential is the weighted average of the individual equilibrium potentials
How can you calculate the flux of charges entering/exiting a cell membrane from the current
divide current by columb's constant e = 1.602X10^-19
How do you determine the moles of a ion from the charge
divide the charge by faraday's constant 965000 coul/mol
What is the sign convention of the flow of ions across the membrane
inward flow of positive -> neg
outward flow of + -> positive
inward flow of - --> pos
outward flow of + --> neg

This is from the definition of real current (not conventional): negative charges (positive current) flows toward the lower potential, so if neg charges flow out of the cell this is positive current
hyperkalemia is...
high extracellular levels of K+ that prevent the normal efflux pressure of K+ from its concentration gradient, which in turn depolarizes the cell just enough to keep the sodium inactivation gates closed and brings the cell closer to depolarization, the membrane potential becomes depolarized so more cl- enters the cell and the cell continually fires and can lead to cell death
_______ channels are even open at rest
K+ channels
Na+ channels have ___ gate(s) and is (are named)... K+ have...
Na+ has 2 gates m(activation) on the extracellular side and h(inactivation) on the intercellular side, K+ has one n (activaiton) gate
When are the h m gates open for the sodium channel
m gate is closed at resting potenatil, h gate is closed during repolarizing phase, and both are closed during undershoot
Why is there a resting potential at all
1) the Na/K pump creates a concentration gradient, 2) K+ leaks out of the cell more than Na+ leaks in (through leak channels and more open K+ channels)
what does adding ouabain do to an action potential
it selectively inhibits the na/K pump (but DOES NOT abolish action potential)

has no immediate effect on nerve AP, over time there is an effect
Tetraethylammonium anion (TEA)...
*bocks K+ channels
* does not prevent APs because Na channels still work
*abolishes hyperpolarization
* prolongs duration of the AP
Tetodotoxin (TTX)
* blocks Na channes irreversibly and blocks AP's altogether
*attenuates spike or blocks AP altogether
*coms from puffer fish (Fugu)
novocaine, lidocaine
* blocks Na channels reversibly
* locally blocks conduction in nerve(s)
* returns when is diluted into extracellular volume and is metabolized or excreted
How many mph in a m/s (also: How many pounds in a kilogram)
2.2
as r_internal/r_membrane/diameter increases conduction velocity...
r_internal: decreases
r_membrane: increases
diameter: increases
nerve conduction towards the nerve terminal is called...
orthodromic
nerve conduction towards the soma is called
antidromic
for unmyelinated axons conduction velocity goes as _____ and for mylenated fibers it goes ____
square root of the diameter, linerally
log 1
0
log 2
~0.3
log 3
~0.48
log 4
~0.6
log 5
~0.70
log 6
~0.78
log 7
~0.85
log 8
~0.90
log 9
~0.96
How does the membrane depend on ca++
the plasma membrane is compused of a negatively charged phosphatidyl serine which is "screend" by ca++. If ca++ is too low na+ will replace ca++, incrase E_na and the driving force of na+ into the cell, decrease the threshold potential and lead to hyperexcitability
Curare is..
a drug which blocks nicotinic Ach receptors.. causes completel paralysis because NMJ is blocked, used to induse paralysis during surgery
Atropine is
a drug which blocks muscarininc Ach receptors Used as an "antidote" for ach inhibiting agents
hemicholinium is..
a drug which blocks choline upake in presynaptic terminal. Ach in vesicle
How does black widow spider venom affect the synapse
uncouples ca++ dependent synaptic release. results in incontrollable release of all transmitter at a synapse
how does botulinium toxin affect the synapse
irreversibly blocks synaptic release of vesicles at cholinergic synapes including the NMJ
Cholinesterase inhibitors do what to the synaptic terminal..
block hydrolysis of ach at cholinergic synapes.. cause hugh-amplitude EPSPs with long duration, paralyzing muscle.. used as a treatment for myasthenia gravis.. allows ach to stay in the cleft longer so their fewer nAChRs can give a biggers respons to the Ach they have
the muscle "thin filament" is composed of...
actin (G-actin monomers which form an F-actin polymer) associated with tropomyosin which covers the binding sites bound to actin with troponin
troponin consists of ...(the three subunits)
TnT subunit that binds tropomyosin
TnC subunit that binds Ca++
TnI that links the three subunits together
Describe the sliding filament theory "cross bridge cycle"
Explain rigor mortis at the molecular muscle level...
myosin must bind ATP to disassociate from actin.. without ATP muscles will be stiff
Describe how Ca++ enters the cytoplasm of the myofibril
The T-tubules carry action potentials from the motor end plate deep into SR, opening the SR’s
Ca++ releasing channel. This is done through the actions of the dihydropyridine (DHP) receptor. When
the DHP conformation changes due to the AP, it “unplugs” the ryanodine receptor (aka calcium
channel) of the SR, thereby releasing Ca++ necessary to initiate contraction
General Somatic Efferent (GSE) is a ____ neuron system involving _____, General Visceral Efferent (GVE) is a ____ neuron system involving ______
GSE- a 1-neuron system involving alpha- and gamma-motoneurons
GVE- a 2-neuron system associated with the autonomic system, which can be classified as either sympathetic or parasympathetic
I bands are called "I" because? and are ____ colored
isotropic because it reflects polarized light "I" for L*I*ght
Abands are called "A" because? and are ____ colored
anisotropic because it doesn't reflect polarized light "A" for dArk
Describe the relation among.. fibre, muscle, myofibril, filaments
What are the three stages of an isometric twitch and how would you measure the time it takes to generate enough force
1)Latency period (time for AP to propagate, t-tubles, activate receptors, ca rlease from SR)
2Contraction time
3)Relaxation time

Think F = ma --> no acceleration unless you can overcome the weight of an object, so the time for an object to move is latency + contraction time up to necessary force
Given the filament lengths thin: 2.1 um, thick 1.5 um, bare zone 0.2 um make a rough plot of force v.s. sarcomere length
connexon is...
a hexameric protein that forms a gap junction
Second messengers bind to which protein to induce fusing of vesicles in the presynaptic terminal
synaptotagmin
hypocalcemia results in...
decreased neurotransmission
hypermagnesemia results in..
decrease3d neurotransmission because Mg competes with Ca++ influx
how is ca++ removed presynaptically?
ca++ atpase and sodium/calcium exchanger
The three muscle fiber types are:
slow oxidative (type I) - don't fatigue
fast oxidative (type IIa) - intermediate characteristics
Fast glycolitic (type IIx) - most powerful, white in appearance, b/c no myoglobin for oxygen binding, fatigue easily
invaginated villi are called
canaliculus
LIS is...
lateral intercellular space... space between epithealial cells
What are the major types of cellular junctions
K+ selective leak channels are blocked by... Na/K atpase are blocked by...Na leak channels are blocked by ...
barium/ouabain/TTX and amiloride
describe what happens to the fluid in the loop of Henle
In other words, as fluids go down the loop of henle, the extracellular solute concentrations pull H2O out to make it hypertonic. Then, when ascending, NaCl is given the chance to leave and is pulled out progressively by decreasing concentrations of solute in the extracellular matrix. This helps to create the gradient that pulled the H2O out in the first place.
how does cholera cause diarrhea..
affects the Cl- secretory cells: cholera toxin binds to cell membrane receptor activates adenylate cyclase which creates sustained increase of cAMP and secretion
WHO-ORS is?
world health organization oral rehydration solution: 90mM na+, 20 mM K+ 80mM Cl-, 20mM citrate 111mM glucose.. WORKS BECAUSE OF GLUCOSE (glucose/Na COtransporter)
preganglionic parasympathetic fibers release ____ onto the postganglionic cell which acivates _____ receptors
ach/nicotinic
postaganglionic parasympathetic release ____ to ____ receptors
ach/muscarinic
pregangalonic sympathetic fiber release ___ onto ____ receptors
ach/nicotinic
postganglionic cell releases _____ and activates ____ receptors
noreepinephrine/alpha- beta- receptors
pre-g sympathetics go to adreneal medulla where they synapse onto ____ via ___ ___ receptors
chromaffin cells/cholinergic nicotinic recptors
dopamine is degraded by
Monoamine oxidase, AKA MAO
the affect of MAO inhibitors is
to raise dopamine levels and produce a sympathetic effect
what does reserpine do...
reduces norepinephrine release... controls hypertension by controlling the amount of norepinephrine in the vesicle and therefore its release into the cell-> decrease in sympathetics, hence, decrease in blood pressure
What are the two methods of uptake of norepinephrine..
uptake 1: NR goes back into the presynaptic cell
uptake 2: NR going into another cell (the effector cell) NOT important unless uptake 1 is blocked, and uptake 2 is slow
what enzyme degrades norepinphrine
Catecholo-methyltransferase (COMT)
alpha adrenergic receptors make mucles ____ alpha 1 are usually work on _____ terminal, alpha 2 usually work on ____ terminal
contract, presynaptic (though there are alpha 2 postsnyaptically) , postsynaptic
compare epinephrine, norepinephrine, isoproterenol as alpha agonist/antagonists
epinephrine > norepinephrine >>isoproterenol (stimulates beta) as alpha agonist
Beta-1 receptors reside _____ wherease Beta-2 reside _____
Beta-1 are stimulated by _____
Beta-2 are stimulated by ____
in the heart, everywhere else, norepinephrine/epinephrine, epinephrine (NR doesn't affect Beta-2)
isoproterenol is a _____ agonist/antagonist.. propranolol is a...
non-specific agonist, non-specific beta antagonist
What is the path of the heart's conducting system:
SA notde->atria->AV node->ventricular conducting sytem (bundle of His and peripheral Purkinje fibers)->inside heart->outside of heart->apex of heart->base of heart
A gap junction is formed by __(#)__ _____ which is composed of _(#)_ ____
A gap junction is formed by 2 connexons (also called hemichannels) which is composed 6 connexins
In addition to Na+ current in cardiac muscle there is...
and L type Ca current that activates at potential positive to about -40mV and provides an net inward current
describe calcium induced calcium release in the heart
1. ca ions come along through the inward L-type Ca current
2. Ca inos flow into the cell and bind to receptors on the SR
3. The binding of Ca on the SR opens Ca channels on the SR that rlease Ca into the cytosol
4. Large incrase in cytosolic Ca leads to muscle contraction
why can't you tetanize the heart
the action potential is effectively just a long as the contraction.. to tetanize the AP must be shorter than the contraction time
How is Ca from L-type channel pumped out fo the cell
*Na/Ca low-affinity, high-capacity exchanger removes MOST of ca that comes in
* Ca ATP pump - balances small deviations of Ca from resting levels
describe therapeutic na/k pump blocking
1. drugs block 10% of Na/K pumps
2. na rises in the cell
3. na gradient decreases
4. na/ca pump decreases
5. ca rises in the cell
6. more ca pumped into sr
6. more ca releases from sr during subsequent ap's
8 greater strength of contraction
which autonomic nerves control the heart
Parasympathetic input from vagus
Sympathetic input from thoracic sympathetic efferents from ganglion on esophagus
myocytes have which type of receptors
beta receptors for sympathetic input
cholinergic M2 receptors for vegal, muscharinic parasympathetic input