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272 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the basic model to follow because it includes many of the common pathways by which fats and proteins are broken down?
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carboyhydrate metabolism
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What carbohydrates are digested what level are they digested to?
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monosaccharide level
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When carbohydrates are digested to the monosaccharide level what does this make them?
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soluble
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Some sugar is stored as what to be used later?
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glycogen
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Where is glycogen stored so it can be used for later?
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liver and muscle cells
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Is glycogen soluble or insoluble?
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insoluble
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What is released when glucose is low?
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glucagon
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Some sugar is converted into what?
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fats in the liver
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What is the name for the breakdown of carbohydrates?
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catabolism
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What is the conversion of gluscose into pyruvate?
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glycolysis
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What is fructose and galactose dconverted into so they can by broke down?
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glucose
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Is glycolysis aerobic or anaerobic?
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anaerobic
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What means there is no need for oxygen?
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anaerobic
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What is the net energy produced for each monosaccharide burned?
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2 ATP and 2 NADH + H
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Where is NADH + H processed at?
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electron transport chain
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What is the product of glycolysis?
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pyruvic acid
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What makes up pyruvic acid?
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two 3 carbon molecules
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What is the term ofr yeast producing alcohol from pyruvate?
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fermentation
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What do muscle cells produce from pyruvate?
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lactate
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Where does the Kreb's cycle occur?
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matrix of mitochondria
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The Krebs cycle stops when what supply stops?
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oxygen
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Acteyl is made from what in the Krebs cycle?
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pyruvate
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Acetyl has how many carbons?
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3
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The third acetyl carbon is given off as what?
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CO2
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For each acetyl produced, what is produced from each pyruvate?
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one NADH + H
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Are FAD and NAD hot or cold potatoes?
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cold potatoes
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Hydrogens from the molecules of Krebs are transferred to what?
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NADH + H and FADH2
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The energy from NADH + H and FADH2 will be used to generate what?
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ATP in the ETS
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How many ATPs do each NADH + H?
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3 ATP
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How many ATPs do each FADH2 have?
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2 ATP
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What does CoA attach to in the matrix?
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acetyl
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What does CoA attach acetyl to to enter the Krebs cycle?
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oxaloacetic acid
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What does acetyl and oxaloacetic acid combine to form?
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citric acid
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How many carbons does oxaloacetic acid have?
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4
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How many carbons does citric acid have?
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6
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For CoA to attach to acetyl then attach to oxaloacetic acid to form citric acid what is this called?
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citric acid cycle
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What is another name for the Krebs cycle?
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hub of the cell
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Components of the Krebs cycle are used to make what?
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some amino acids, nucleic acids, and some fats
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Where does the electron transport system occur?
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mitochondria
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What is input into the electron transport system?
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reduced coenzymes, oxygen from the atomsphere, ADP and phosphate
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What is taken out from the electron trasport system?
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ATP, H2O, Oxidized NAD and FAD
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H2O that is taken out of the electron transport system, where is the O2 from and the H+ from?
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O2 from air, H+ from NADH + H and FADH2
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As electrons pass from one acceptor to the next, energy is taken away and is used to do what?
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pump hydrogen ions out of mitochondrion
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How discovered chemiosmosis and when?
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Peter Mitchell 1961
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What is the term for electron passses along the electron transport chain, hydorgen ions are pumped out of the matix and into the intermembrane space of the mitochondrion?
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chemiosmosis
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What is based on one glucose burned?
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cost accounting
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During glycolysis, how many ATP's are produced and how many are used?
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4....2
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If malate is the transfer molecule during glycolysis, then each NADH + H+ nets how many ATP's?
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3
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If glycerol phophate is the transfer molecule during glycolysis, then each NADH + H+ nets how many ATP's?
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2
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Where do mammals use malate?
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mitochondria of the heart, liver, and kidney cells
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Where do mammals use glycerol phophate?
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skeletal muscle and brain mitochondria
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How many pyruvates are converted into acetyl?
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2
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What % of the American diet is fat?
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42%
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Where is fat located?
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subcutaneous skin, around hearts, greater omentum, etc
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What are lipids stored as?
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fat
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How much more energy to you get with fats then you do with carbohydrates?
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twice the calories and energy
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What are lipids digested into?
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glycerol and fatty acids
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How many carbons does glycerol have?
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3
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How many carbons do fatty acids have?
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18
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Glycerol enters glycoysis as what?
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glyceraldehyde phophate
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What is the term for chopping the fatty acids into smaller molecules like acetyls?
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beta oxidation
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What are the products of protein catabolism?
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keto acids
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What may result from burning fats and proteins?
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ketosis
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What is the building of something, such as fat?
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anabolism
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What is the breaking down of something, such as fat?
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catabolism
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What is another name for protein synthesis?
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protein anabolism
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Protein metabolism begins with what?
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deamination
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What is the cycle for deamination?
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amino acid -> imino acid -> keto acid -> Kreb's
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What remains after deamination enters Kreb's?
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Keto acids
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What is the the cost of living or how fast we burn fuel?
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basal metabolic rate
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Do males or females burn more calories?
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males
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BMR is calculated by what?
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oxygen consumption
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When measuring oxygen consumption during BMR, what is the equation used?
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6O2 + C6H12O6 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O
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How much is generated for each liter of oxygen consumed?
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4.8 kcal
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What is the maximum BMR value possible?
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1440/hr
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What allows glucose and amino acids to enter cells so it lowers serum glucose?
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insulin
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Where does insulin come from?
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beta cells and islets of langerhans in the pancreas
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The feedback mechanism in the Beta cells keeps serum glucose level between what?
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70 and 100 mg/100 ml of blood
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Insulin stimulates the liver to convert glucose into what?
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glycogen and fat
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Insulin increases cellular uptake of what?
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glucose and amino acids
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Insulin inhibits what?
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fat and protein catabolism
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When glucose levels are low what is released?
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glucagon
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When glucose levels are high what is released?
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insulin
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Glucagon release is caused by what?
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decrease in serum glucose
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Absence of insulin inhibits the abosorption of what?
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glucose
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Glucagon stimulates the liver to convert glycogen into what?
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glucose
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Glucagon increase what type of catabolism?
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fat and proteins
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What does ACTH stand for?
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adrenocorticotropic hormone
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What does ACTH stimulate
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adrenal cortex
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Where is ACTH produced and released from?
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basophils of the anterior lobe of the pituitary
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What does ACTH cause the adrenal cortex to release?
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corticosteroids, aldosterone, gonadocortiocoids
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What are some examples of corticosteroids?
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glucocorticoids like corisol and corticosterone
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Where are corticosteroids released from?
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zona fasciculata
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What do glucocorticoids help the body deal with?
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stress
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Aldosterone release is mostly under the control of what?
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angiotensin II
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Where are gonadocorticoids relased from?
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zona reticularis
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What are some examples of gonadocorticoids?
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testosterone and estrogen
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Where is growth hormone produced and released from?
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alpha cells in the adenohypophysis
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What does GH simulate?
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protein anabolism and fat catabolism
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What is TSH?
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thyroid stimulating hormone
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Where is TSH produced and released from?
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basophils in the adenyhypophysis
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TSH stimulates the thyroid to release what?
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T4 and T3
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What is T4?
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thyroxine
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What is T3?
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triiodothyronine
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What % of the thyroid secretion is T4?
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93%
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What % of the thyroid secretion is T3?
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7%
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What is more potent as a hormone, T3 or T4?
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T3
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What means bypassing the intestines?
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parenteral
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What does TPN stand for?
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total parenteral nutrition
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Who was the first person to receive parenteral nutrition?
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Judy Taylor
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All TPN's would contain what?
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water, glucose, 9 amino acids, 2 fatty acids, 21 minerals, 13 vitamins
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Where is water lost?
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urine and sweat
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1% of body water loss causes what?
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thirst
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5% of body water loss causes what?
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tired, hot, achy feelings
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10% of body water loss causes what?
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delirium and kidney failure
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20% of body water loss is what?
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fatal
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2/3 of our glucose feeds what?
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nervous system
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Without glucose what happens?
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we die
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Proteins that make glucose conserve what?
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vital fatty acids
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Fats that make glucose produce what?
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ketones
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What causes "acetone breath"?
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ketosis
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What can we make glucose from?
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amino acids or glycerol
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Without glucose a normal person can last how long?
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one month
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What do you die from if you are anorexic?
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heart failure
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What essential amino acid is only in children?
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histidine
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Name some non essential vitamins?
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cysteine, arginine
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Excessive acetyl causes in increase in choleterol which leads to what?
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atherosclerosis
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What results from low amino acid intake, and infests the first child after the second child is born?
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Kwashiorker
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What essential amino acid is in low concentration in corn?
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tryptophan
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A deficiency in lysine causes what?
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dizziness and nausea
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A deficiency in what stop fat transport from the liver?
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methionine
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A deficiency in what, which is a component of hemoglobin causes anemia and decreases histamine production?
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histidine
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What deficiency causes blurred vision and tingly feeling?
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linolenic acid
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What defiencies stunt growth?
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linoleic acid
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What form samll micelles?
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lecithin
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What are the Big 7 minerals needed?
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Ca, P, Na, Cl, K, Mg, S
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What is needed for Bone and Blood Clotting?
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calcium and phophate
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How much magnesium is needed daily?
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350 mg/day
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Of the 350 mg/day of magnesium obtained, how much is stored?
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25 gram
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What is needed for buffers?
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sodium and phophate
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What is part of proteins and great for lubricants?
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sulfur
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What is needed for membranes?
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sodium and potassium
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what is needed for hemoglobin, myoglobin?
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iron
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What is needed in your diet to absorb iron?
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sugar
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What is the #2 nutritional problem in the U.S. behind deficiency?
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iron deficiency anemia
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Where is iron lost at?
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hair, nails, sweat, blood loss
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What is iodine needed for?
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T3 and T4
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What is zinc needed for?
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immune system and retina
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What other minerals are needed for normal cell function?
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copper, nickel, silacon, arsenic, and chromium
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How much iron do females need to take in daily?
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18 mg/day
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How much iron do males need to take in daily?
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10 mg/day
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What are organic substances that are needed in small amounts for metabolism?
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vitamins
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What is not used as an energy source?
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vitamins
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What are the fat soluble vitamins?
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D, E, A, K
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What was the last vitamin discovered?
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cobalamin
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How many Vitamins were discoverd?
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13
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What vitamin maintains epithelial cells, essential for rhodopsin, and is a powerful antioxidant?
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Vitamin A
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What vitamin builds mucous membranes, maintains gums, skin, and nerve sheaths?
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Vitamin A
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What does Vitamin A need to work properly?
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zinc
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A deficieny in Vit A causes what?
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dry scaly skin, epithelial infections, night blindness, UTI's and dental caries
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What is the cause of blurred vision, headaches, nausea, rough skin, diarrhea, depression, and liver damage?
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hypervitaminosis A
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Who learned about hypervitaminosis A?
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arctic explorers
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What are sources for vitamin A?
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beta carotene (yellow-orange vegetables)
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What is the calcium deposting vitamin?
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vitamin D
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Vitamin D is sythesized in the sunlight from what?
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7-dehydrocholesterol
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Vitamin D is modified where?
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liver and kidney
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What is the whole name for Vitamin D3?
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1, 25 dihydroxycholecalciferol
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What is used for absorption and utilization of calcium and phosphate and also involved in cell division?
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Vitamin D
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Where is Vit D reabsorbed from?
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kidney filtrate
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Where is Vit D absorbed from?
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gut
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A decrease in Vit D in the diet causes what?
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rickets
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What is the abnormal formation of bones?
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osteomalacia
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What is not enough calcium in bones?
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osteoperosis
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What helps prevent rickets?
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cod liver oil
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When was rickets isolated in the lab?
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1922
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What is the "super vitamin"?
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Vitamin E
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What prevents oxidation, involved in DNA and RNA sythesis, protects against free radicals, and helps maintain RBCs?
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Vitamin E
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What are some sources for Vitamin E?
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grains, germ, green veggies, oils, nuts, fruit
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What is danish for koagulation?
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Vitamin K
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What is Vitamin K essential for?
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prothrombin synthesis and bone formation
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What are the sources for Vitamin K?
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spinach, cauliflower, liver, green leafy vegetables, and cheese
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What are bacteria with longterm antibiotic therapy?
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intestinal bacteria
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What is the real name for B-1?
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Thiamin
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What is essential for carbohydrate metabolism, part of pyruvate dehydrogenase and alphaketogluterate dehydrogenase?
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Thiamin
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A Thiamin deficiency causes what?
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beriberi
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What is a peripheral nervous disorder, swollen heart fibers, and GI smoth muscle parlysis?
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beriberi
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What causes beriberi in Asia?
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polished rice
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What is a nervous system disorder and decreased sense of touch?
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polyneuritis
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What are the sources for Thiamin?
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cereals, eggs, liver, yeast, nuts, outer coating of grains and rice
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What is the real name for B-2?
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riboflavin
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What is part several coenzymes like FAD?
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riboflavin
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A deficiency in riboflavin causes what?
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blurred vision, corners of mouth cracking, dermatitis, red eyes, and anemia
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What are some sourcs of riboflavin?
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liver, yeast, kidney, cereal, peas, fruits, beans
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What is the real name for B-6?
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pyridoxine
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What are our risk vitamins?
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folic acid and pyridoxine
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What is essential for transamination of amino acids, sythesis of adrenal hormones, and a coenzyme for at least 50 enzymes?
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pyridoxine
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What are some sources for pyroxidine?
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liver, yeast, spinach, cereals, yogurt, and red meat
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What is the real name for B-12?
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cobalamin
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What was the last vitamin discovered?
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cobalamin
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What is needed for RBC development, nucleic acid formation, nerve growth, and amino acid catabolism?
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cobalamin
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What is the name for placing amino acids in the Kreb's cycle?
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amino acid catabolism
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A deficiency in cobalamin causes what?
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pernicious anemia
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What is usually a result of lack of intrinsic factor production?
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pernicious anemia
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Intrinsic factor is produced by what?
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parietal cells
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What are sources for cobalamin?
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liver, eggs, cheese, meat, kidney, legume nodules
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What is the real name for B-3?
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Niacin
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What is part of NAD, is essential for metabolism, and decreases cholesterol production?
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niacin
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A niacin deficiency causes what?
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pellagra
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What are the 4 D's associated with pellagra?
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dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, and death
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What are some sources for niacin?
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liver, yeast, nuts, grains, fish, bread, and meat
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What is another name for Vitamin C?
|
ascorbic acid
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What is essential for connective tissue formation and immunity and is an antioxidant which scavenges free radicals?
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ascorbic acid
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A a deficiency in ascorbic acid causes what?
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scurvy
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How long does it take to get scurcy?
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20-30 weeks
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Who discovered that eating oranges and lemons would prevent scurvy?
|
James Lind
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What are sources for ascorbic acid?
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citrus
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What is needed for coenzyme A and helps in steroid synthesis?
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pantothenic acid
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What are sources for pantothenic acid?
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grains, legumes, liver, yeast, egg yolk, meat
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What is the real name for B-7?
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biotin
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What is involved in ATP synthesis, glycolysis, fatty acid formation and Krebs?
|
biotin
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A deficiency in what causes a decreased mental development, decreased B and T cell function, rash, sore tongue, muscle pain, and insomnia?
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biotin
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What are source for biotin?
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liver, kidney, yeast, eggs, nuts
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What is needed for DNA synthesis, helps for hemoglobin, and the synthesis of methionine and other amino acids?
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folic acid
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What is involved in the normal development of the embryonic neural tube?
|
folic acid
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A deficiency in folic acid causes what in embryos?
|
spina bifida
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What are sources for folic acid?
|
fresh veggies, fruit
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What is a system of glands that control many body activities by releasing hormones into the intersitial space around its cells which then passes into blood and is integrated with the nervous system?
|
endocrine system
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What are glands of the endocrine system?
|
pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, ovary, testis
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What is an endocrine and exocrine gland?
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pancreas
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What does the stomach release?
|
gastrin
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Gastrin from the stomach increases what?
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HCl
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What does the intestines release?
|
intestinal gastrin
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Intestinal gastrin decreases what?
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HCl
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What does the intestines release that increases pancreas secretions?
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secretin
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What do the kidneys release that stimulate RBC production?
|
hemopoietic hormones
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What does skin produce?
|
Vit D-3 precursor
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Body cells release what?
|
prostaglandins
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What are boudn to carriers that release them into blood at a constant rate?
|
hormones
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What is the half life of a hormone?
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minutes
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Amines are modified from what?
|
tyrosine, histidine, tryptophan
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What are example of polypeptides that only have 9 amino acids each?
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ADH and oxytocin
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What hormones are glycoproteins?
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TSH, LH, and FSH
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What are the largest hormones?
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prolactin and GH
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What type of hormones contact the cell membrane and trigger a response?
|
proteins and peptides
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What type of hormone is derived from cholesterol?
|
steroids
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What diffuse directly into the target cell, bind with another molecule which binds with DNA causint mRNA synthesis?
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steroids and T3
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What are derived from arachidonic acid?
|
eicosanoids
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What are examples of eicosanoid?
|
prostaglandins and leukotrienes
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Hormone concentration is controlled by what?
|
negative feedback
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What is used to determine the content of a hormone in blood?
|
radioimmunoassay
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What is the master gland and controls many of the other endocrine glands?
|
pituitary
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What is another name for the anterior lobe of the pituitary?
|
adenohypophysis
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What do acidophils in the anterior lobe produce?
|
GH and prolactin
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What do basophils in the anterior lobe produce?
|
TSH, FSH, LH, ACTH, MSH
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What cells in the anterior lobe are pale in color?
|
chromophobic cells
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What is an ectodermal cluster of cells that migrate from the embryonic roof of the mouth to the hypothalamus?
|
Rathke's pouch
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What is the blood supply to the anterior lobe of the pituitary?
|
superior hypophyseal artery
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What is a micro portal system with two capillary beds, one in the hypothalamus and the other in the hypophysis?
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hypophyseal portal system
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What are released by the hypothalamus, flow through the portal vessels to the hypophysis to stimulate hormone release?
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releasing and inhibiting hormones
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What is another name for the posterior lobe of the pituitary?
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neurohypophysis
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What is the blood supply of the posterior lobe of the pituitary?
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inferior hypophyseal artery
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The poterior lobe of the pituitary is controlled by what?
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hypothalamus
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Hormones in the posterior lobe are transported by a process called what?
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axon transport
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What hormones are released from the posterior lobe of the pituitary?
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oxytocin and ADH
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Oxytocin is from what?
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paraventricular nucleus
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ADH is from what?
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supraoptic nucleus
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What is released 1000 x more than any other hormone?
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GH
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How many amino acids make up GH?
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191
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What stimulates anabolism, protein synthesis, fat catabolism, epiphyseal growth, conversion of glycogen to glucose and amino acid entry into cells?
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GH
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The conversion of glycogen to glucose can cause what?
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hyperglycemia
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GH is released into the blood when what is released from the hypothalamus?
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GHRH
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What clinical problems can be associated with GH?
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dwarfism, gianism, acromegaly
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