Physiology Lab Exam #3

Front 1

1. What are the subdivisions of the PNS (motor division only).

Back 1

Somatic (Skeletal) has Sensory division going to the brain, and motor division coming from the brain

Autonomic is parasympathetic and sympathetic

Enteric is the digestive system which includes sensory division and motor division

Front 2

2. Name two differences between a cholinergic and an adrenergic neuron?

Back 2

Adrenergic neuron releases epinephrine/adrenaline and norepinephrine/noradrenaline. Adrenergic neuron synaptic transmission is activated by the sympathetic division of the Autonomic Nervous System.

Cholinergic neuron synaptic transmission is activated by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine that is part of the parasympathetic division of the Autonomic Nervous System that releases acetylcholine.

Front 3

3. Crease a list of 5 receptor types. Classify the receptors as excitatory or inhibitory (example beta-1 receptors).

Back 3

Alpha 1 receptor - excitatory

Alpha 2 receptor - inhibitory

Beta 1 receptor - excitatory

Beta 2 receptor - inhibitory

Beta 3 receptor - excitatory

Front 4

4. Pre-ganglionic neurons from the sympathetic nervous system release what type of neurotransmitter (NT)? What type of receptor does this NT bind to in the sympathetic pathway?

Back 4

Pre-ganglionic neurons from the sympathetic nervous system releases acetylcholine that binds to either a nitotinic receptor or muscarinic receptor

Front 5

5. Which cranial nerve carries parasympathetic innervation beyond the neck region? List 2 functions of this cranial nerve.

Back 5

Vagus cranial nerve 10 decreases heart rate and speeds up the GI tract that carries parasympathetic innervation

Front 6

6. A medication can have an antagonist effect on the normal response of an organ. Explain how this type of medication will affect the target organ.

Back 6

Antagonistic effect binds to and blocks a receptors, it prevents a neurotransmittere or hormone from exciting its effect, for example (Medication - Albuterol)

Front 7

7. What type of neurotransmitter binds to a muscarinic receptor?

Back 7

Acetylcholine binds to a muscarinic receptor.

Front 8

8. How is sleep regulated by the autonomic system? List 3 ways and explain each answer.

Back 8

Under the autonomic nervous system we should be in parasympathetic most of the time, when sleeping and in REM, should be in parasympatetic

Front 9

9. List the stages of sleep. At what stage can person experience night terrors?

Back 9

Stage 1 - transition stage, eyes closed, relaxation begins, vital signs normal, awaken easily (alpha waves). Stage 2 - light sleep, first stage of true sleep, arousal more difficult, fragments of dreams, eyes move side to side (alpha waves). Stage 3 - moderate deep sleep, sleep deepens, vital signs decrease, skeletal muscles relaxed, dreaming, usually about 20 minutes after onset of stage 1 (theta and delta waves) and body starts to rejuvenate, stage 4 - deep sleep where vitals reach their lowest, digestion increases, bedwetting, night terrors, and sleep walking may occur (delta waves dominate) don't interrupt night terrors, you might get attacked. night terrors in stage 4.

Front 10

10. What is the circadian rhythm? If the circadian rhythm is imbalanced, do you think this can cause abnormal hormone levels in the bloodstream? Explain your answer.

Back 10

Circadian rhythm is a 24 hour of human sleep and wake cycle, it is established by hypothalamus, under cortisol and blood sugar control, blood sugar drops early morning causing you to awaken, also responds to sunlight and darkness. If circadian rhythm is imbalanced, I do think it can cause abnormal hormone levels in the blood stream. ACTH Adrenocorticotropic circadian rhythm, ACTH blood levels go more or less opposite to melatonin. ACTH high in daytime and low at night. ACTH rise when body stressed.

Front 11

11. List two different wave patterns found on an EEG? Which wave pattern/s would you see in a person that is having a seizure at the time the EEG is being performed?

Back 11

Alpha waves - low amplitude, indicate brain is calm, beta waves are rhythmic and have higher frequency than alpha when we are awake or alert as when concentrating on something you are looking at, theta waves are irregular, low frequency that is abnormal in adults awake, seen in adults and children in REM stages, delta waves are high amplitude seen during deep sleep, delta waves will be seen if person having a seizure at time. beta waves have higher frequency when EEG performed

Front 12

12. Define the word stimulus. Give 2 examples.

Back 12

Stimulus is a change in the environment that can activate sensory receptors. A change in lighting that will activate photoreceptors. A change in temperature will activate thermoreceptors. A change in movement due to earthquake will activate mechanoreceptors.

Front 13

13. Define the word perception. Give 2 examples.

Back 13

Perception is the conscious interpretation of a stimulus or external world by the brain. Phantom limb sensation.

Front 14

14. What would be the action of the following organs under sympathetic control: heart, lungs, GI tract, pupil, urinary bladder? List the actions of the same organs under parasympathetic control.

Back 14

Sympathetic control/mode (blood flow to extremities, lung, and heart, pupils dilated, GI organs turned off, heart rate increased, respiration rate increased, urinary bladder turned on and may possible urinate in pants)

Parasympathetic control/mode (blood flow in cervical, thoracic, and lumbar region, pupils are vasoconstricted in peripheral, GI organ turned on while other organs turned off, respiration rate decreased, urinary bladder turned off)

Front 15

15. List one similarity and one difference between beta 1 and beta 2 receptors? Where are they located throughout the body? What happens when a person is given a medication that works as an agonist to beta 1 receptors on the heart? Explain your answer.

Back 15

Similarity between Beta 1 and Beta 2 Receptors is that they bind to norephinephrine or epinephrine that was released by the postganglionic adrenergic neuron. Difference is Beta 1 is excitatory and Beta 2 is inhibitory. Beta 1 is excitation in the heart, posterior pituitary (ADH secretion), adipose (breakdown of fat), Beta 2 inhibition of smooth muscle in lungs (relaxation causing dilation of airways, ciliary eye muscle (relaxation), liver (breakdown) glycogen to glucose.

Front 16

16. for the following, list sympathetic, parasympathetic, or both

a. called the thoraco-lumbar division

b. contains cranial nerves and sacral nerves

c. contains cholinergic neurons

d. contains adrenergic receptors

e. contains preganglionic neurons that release acetylcholine

Back 16

a. thoraco-lumbar division - sympathetic
b. cranial nerves and sacral nerves - parasympathetic
c. cholinergic neurons - both sympathetic and parasympathetic
d. adrenergic receptors - sympathetic
e. preganglionic neurons that release acetylcholine - both sympathetic and parasympathetic

Front 17

17. What is the difference between epinephrine and norepinephrine? Which one does the adrenal medulla secrete the most in an acute crisis?

Back 17

Epinephrine is also known as adrenaline and norepinephrine is known as noradrenaline. Norepinephrine is relased from the adrenal glands (adrenal medulla) and is converted into epinephrine in an acute crisis the adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine, adrenaline, helps body respond to stressful situation by increased heart rate and force of heart contractions facilitate blood flow to muscles and brain, causes relaxation of smooth muscle.

Front 18

18. How does the autonomic nervous system relate to auditory interpretation in the temporal lobe (consider what happens when you hear a smoke alarm)? Explain your answer.

Back 18

If smoke alarm heard, sympathetic mode, stimulate cochlear lobe to temporal lobe and interpret sound, heart rate increased due to epinephrine and Beta 1 receptor excitatory. Lungs and respiration rate increase, smooth muscle in lung dilate and inhibitory bronchioles to dilate. Pupils also dilate.

Front 19

19. How does a beta blocker slow down the heart rate? Include the neuron, receptor and neurotransmitters involved? Give a detail explanation.

Back 19

The preganglionic cholinergic releases Acetylcholine and binds to nicotinic receptor on the postganglionic synaptic cholinergic neuron which releases acetylcholine that binds to muscarinc receptor on heart (effector) to decrease the rate and intensity due to parasympathetic pathway.

Front 20

20. Ali decided to take a swim in the ocean at a beach party. Five hours after the party she began to develop a fever and started complaining of nuchal rigidity (stiff neck). Her facial expression indiviated that she was in some type of pain but she did not want to worry her friends. When she arrived home, her mother saw that she was in distress and rushed her to the ER. You take her vitals and notice all are elevated. Her pain scale is 10/10 when you try to move her neck. You also actively flex her neck and notice flexion in her thigh which is a sign of meningitis. Ali is in danger and you call for a specialist. Create a chart for this patient.

Back 20

S: swam in ocean at a beach party, 5 hour after party fever and complain nuchal rigidity (stiff neck)

O: vitals elevated, pain 10/10 when moving neck, flex neck and notice flexion in her thigh

A: possible meningitis

P: call for a specialist

Front 21

21. Samantha comes to your office and stated that she was on a "healthy" fast. She consumed liquids only for 2 weeks straight to "clean her system". During the fast, she began to notice very strange odors coming from her skin. She also consumed 2 gallons of distilled water, per day, to help "eliminate the toxins". She is now complaining of muscle cramps, weakness and extreme fatigue. What do you think is wrong with Samantha? Give your explanation.

Back 21

Lack of electrolytes, cells are hypotonic, lack of potassium can cause muscle cramps, weakness due to lack of carbohydrates to make glucose, cells are starved and cant generate enough adenotriphosphate (ATP). Muscle break down and toxins

Front 22

1. List 3 hormones from the anterior pituitary and 2 from the posterior pituitary. Also include a brief function of each.

Back 22

Seven Anterior Pituitary Hormones (hGH assist with epiphyseal bone growth, TSH assist with thyroid level & metabolism, ACTH stimulated by fever, low blood sugar, adrenal stressors, LH stimulates secretion of estroge/ testosterone, ovulate on day 14, FSH stimulates sex organs and growth of ovarian follicles and sperm, PRL stimulates milk production after birth of baby, cause mammary glands to release milk, MSH causes darkening of skin.

Two Posterior Pituitary Hormones

Oxytocin and ADH

Front 23

2. What is the difference between up and down regulation? Given an example of each.

Back 23

Down regulation is when surface hormone is present in excess with number of receptors decreases (target cell is less sensitive). Example, when someone takes a hormone medication for a long time and increased number of hormones however lack of receptors to attach to.

Up regulation is when hormone is deficient and number of receptors increase (target cell is more sensitive)

Front 24

3. What is the purpose of the thymus? At what stage in life is the thymus the largest?

Back 24

Thymus promotes maturation of T cells (WBC that destroys microbes and foreign substances) may also retard aging or slow the aging process. Largest at childhood and atrophies into adulthood.

Front 25

4. What is the difference between an endocrine and an exocrine gland? Give an example of an endocrine gland besides the pituitary gland. Describe the function of this gland.

Back 25

Exocrine glands contain ducts, nonhormonal products are routed to external surfaces of membranes (for example, enzymes).

Endocrine glands does not contain ducts, excreted hormones from cell center into the bloodstream (for example, insulin, hormones only affect target cells with SPECIFIC membrane proteins called receptors, circulating and local hormones)

Front 26

5. What are the general effects of the following and where do they originate: calcitonin, PTH, epinephrine, insulin, estrogen, testosterone

Back 26

Calcitonin (originates from thyroid gland) responsible for building of bone and stops reabsorption of bone (lowers blood levels of calcium, stimulates osteoblasts), PTH (originates from parathyroid gland) regulates homeostasis of calcium and phosphate, epinephrine ( originates from adrenal glands/medulla) sympathetic mode, increased heart rate, increased respiration rate, adrenaline, fight or flight, insulin originates in pancreas and decreases blood sugar, estrogen (originates from ovaries) gives female characteristics, promotes breast development; testosterone (originates from testes) promotes sperm production, stimulates sex drive and aggression, excessive amount can lead to overactive prostate resulting in prostate cancer

Front 27

6. Give 3 ways a water soluble hormone differs from a lipid soluble hormone?

Back 27

Differences between water soluble hormone from lipid soluble hormone. Lipid soluble (steroids thyroid hromones, nitric oxide is gas) lipids area from cholesterol, slow acting and long lasting produced by the adrenal glands and sex glands whereas

Water Soluble is from amino acids, fast acting, short lived, make up most hormones, amine, peptide, and protein hormones - modified amino acids or amino acids put together (serotonin, melatonin, histamine, epinephrine, some glycoproteins, eicosanoids)

Front 28

7. Name two hormones from the endocrine system that can control blood pressure and describe their effect on blood pressure.

Back 28

Posterior Pituitary Antidiuretic Hormone Vasopressin stimulated by increase blood osmolarity and decrease blood volume, pain, some drugs and low blood pressure. Epinephrine and Norepineprhine Hormone, Epinephrine (sympathetic) increases blood pressure and Norepinephrine decreases blood pressure (parasympathetic)

Front 29

8. What is the difference between the endo-lymph and peri-lymph in the ear?

Back 29

Perilymph is a fluid chemically similar to CSF and surrounds the membranous labyrinth. Endolymph is located inside of the bony labyrinth.

Front 30

9. Explain the olfactory pathway. Include the location of the first and second order neurons.

Back 30

The receptors for olfaction, which are bipolar neurons are in the nasal epithelium in the superior portion of the nasal cavity. They are first order neurons of the olfactory pathway supporting cells are epithelial cells of the mucous membrane lining the nose. Basal stem cells produce new olfactory nerves (cranial nerve 1) that synapse in the olfactory bulb pass through 40 foramina in cribiform plate. Second order neurons within the olfactory bulb form the olfactory tract that synapses on primary olfactory area of temporal lobe - conscious awareness of smell begins. Other pathways lead to the temporal lobe where identification of the odor occurs (limbic system) emotional connection with smell

Front 31

10. List 3 symptoms of hyperthyroidism and 3 signs of hypothyroidism.

Back 31

Hypothyroidism (overactive thyroid), thyroid gland produces too much of hormone thyroxine. Symptoms include weight loss suddenly, nervousness, tremor, sweating, fatigue, muscle weakness, skin thinning, fine brittle hair, Hypothyroidism (lack of thyroid hormone) symptoms include weight gain, goiter (enlarged thyroid), exothalamus (bulging of eyes that develop due to fat pad behind eye), stunted physical and mental growth

Front 32

11. Does the following increase or decrease blood sugar; insulin, cortisol.

Back 32

Insulin decreases blood sugar. Cortisol increases blood sugar through gluconeogenesis to suppress the immune system and to aid in the metabolism of fat, protein, and carbohydrate, it also decreases bone formation. Hydrocortisone is a name for cortisol when it is used as a medication

Front 33

12. What are some signs of symptoms of an abnormal growth hormone level in a patient?

Back 33

Cretinism is due to the lack of thyroid hormone, stunted physical and mental growth. Anterior Pituitary Human growth hormone. Acromegaly hGH hypersecretion in adulthood, facial features get coarser, large nose, large lips, large jaw

Front 34

13. What is a goiter? Can the hypothalamus cause a goiter? Explain your answer.

Back 34

Goiter is an enlarged thyroid, Goiter, the process begins when the hypothalamus an area at the base of your brain that acts as a thermostat for your whole system signals your pituitary gland to make a hormone known as thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

Front 35

14. How does the hypothalamus communicate with the anterior and posterior pituitary?

Back 35

Infundibulum is the connecting stalk between hypothalamus and pituitary

Front 36

15. List two different types of water soluble hormones. List 2 hormones that are involved in the inflammatory process? Label these hormones as water or lipid soluble.

Back 36

Water soluble hromones/ non-steroid are made up from amino acids, fast acting and short lived and make up most hormones. Amine, peptide and protein hormones are modified amino acids or amino acids put together - serotonin, melatonin, histamine, epinephrine, some glycoproteins. Eicosanoids (for inflammation and allergies) are derived from arachidonic acid (derived from phopholipids) (fatty acid) Prostaglandins (involved in inflammation or leukotrienes involved in allergies)

Front 37

16. Explain the second messenger pathway.

Back 37

The first messenger water soluble cannot pass through target cells plasma membrane freely, requires the binding of integral membrane receptor, the binding activates a G protein, which then activates an adenyl cyclase, which converts ATP to cAMP,cAMP will activate Kinase which will catalyze RXNs for physiological changes.

Front 38

17. Which gland secretes melatonin? What is the function of melatonin?

Back 38

The pineal gland secretes/releases melatonin. Melatonin helps to calm a person down, released more in darkness than in the light, sets body's biological clock which is controlled by hypothalamus, converts T4 to T3.

Front 39

18. Give a brief explanation of the gustatory pathway? What happens if a person has paralysis of the facial nerve? Can they still taste their food? Explain your answer.

Back 39

Gustatory pathway, first order gustatory fibers founds in cranial nerves, Cranial nerve seven (facial) serves anterior two thirds of tongue, cranial nerve nine (glossopharyngeal) serves posterior one third of tongue. Cranial nerve ten (vagus) serves palate and epiglottis. Signals tracel to thalamus or limbic system and hypothalamus. Taste fibers extend from the thalamus to the primary gustatory area on parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex which provides conscious perception of taste. If paralysis of facial nerve then two third of tongue affected in that area.

Front 40

20. Why does a person need to blow their nose after they have been crying excessively?

Back 40

Lacrimal gland releases tears lateral to medial and out the nose and therefore blowing tears out of nose. Lacrimal gland to excretory lacrimal ducts to superior or inferior lacrimal canal to the lacrimal sac and through the nasolacrimal duct to the nasal cavity

Front 41

21. A woman is experiencing disturbances in her equilibrium: dizziness and nausea. Which part of the ear is probably malfunctioning? Explain.

Back 41

Fluid in semicircular canal causes person to be dizzy when swung around when fluid not moving around, dizziness stops. Cerebellum is for equilibrium.

Front 42

22. Janie is a 6 year old girl who is being referred to the eye clinic by her teacher. Her teacher suspects a need for glasses. Examination reveals that Janie has myopia. What is myopia and what type of corrective lenses will she need? (concave or convex)

Back 42

Myopic eye (nearsighted) is for concave lenses, distant object focused in front of retina. Hyperoptic eye (farsightedness) needs convex lenses that distant objects focused behind the retina. Emmetropic (normal vision) is no assistive lenses required, distant object focused on retina.

Front 43

23. A 16 year old baseball player was hit in the back of the head with a bat. He became temporarily blind. He became very hysterical and he began yelling for help. Give an explanation for his injury.

Back 43

The bat hit his occipital lobe, where vision is interpreted, since it was struck, it temporarily blinded him.

Front 44

24. Briefly explain the auditory pathway.

Back 44

1. movement of the oval window sets up fluid pressure waves in the perilymph of the cochlea

2. Pressure waves are transmitted eventually to the round window, causing it to bulge outward into middle ear. 3. As pressure waves deform the walls of the scala vestibuli and scala tympani, they push vestibular membrane back and forth and increase and decrease the pressure of the endolymph inside the cochlear duct. 4. The pressure fluctuations of the endolymph move the basilar membrane slightly, moving the hair cells of the spiral organ against the tectorial membrane. 5. The bending of the hairs produces receptor potentials that lead to the generation of nerve impulses in cochlear nerve fibers. 6. Pressure changes cause the round window to bulge outward into the middle ear

Front 45

25. List where the following are located: outer ear, middle ear, or inner ear.

a. coclear

b. cerumen

c. tympanic membrane

d. osccicles

e. eustachian tube

Back 45

a. coclear - inner
b. cerumen - outer
c. tympanic membrane inner
d. osccicles - middle
e. eustachian tube- inner

Front 46

26. Explain the visual pathway. Include explanation of what happens after light enters the eye, until the interpretation of vision in the appropriate lobe. What would happen if the medial portion of the right eye was damaged by a sharp object? Explain.

Back 46

If image hits medial aspect of the eye, the image goes to the opposite occipital lobe. If an image hits lateral aspect of eye, image goes to the same side of the occipital lobe.

Front 47

27. Mike has an elevated blood pressure of 160/98. If he has a pituitary tumor and it caused vasopressin to be released in excess from the pituitary, how would this affect his blood pressure? What does it mean if his serum osmolarity becomes 160 mosm/kg? Explain your answer.

Back 47

If vasopressin released in excess, can cause increased blood pressure, serum osmolarity is below normal range (285-295 mosm/kg) can be cause of hyponatremia. Vasopressin causes water retention by kidneys.

Front 48

1. Trace a drop of blood from the right atrium to the aorta.

Back 48

Right atrium to tricuspid valve to the right ventricle to the pulmonary trunk to the pulmonary arteries to the lung tissues (pulmonary circulation) to the pulmonary veins to the left atrium to the bicuspid or mitral valve to the left ventricle to the aortic semilunar valves to the aorta to the body tissues (systemic circulation) to the superior and inferior vena cava to the right atrium

Front 49

2. Explain what you hear when you are listening to heart sounds with the stethoscope.

Back 49

First heart sound (Lubb) is caused by atrioventricular valves (Mitral) and Tricuspid. Second Heart Sound (Dubb) is caused by semilunar valves (aortic) and pulmonary

Front 50

3. What is referred pain? Where in the body can referred pain manifest when there is an elevated troponin level due to a myocardial infarction?

Back 50

Referred pain is also known as reflective pain that is pain perceived at a location other than the site of the painful stimulus. An example is the case of ischemia brought on by a myocardial infarction (heart attack) where pain felt often in the neck, shoulders, and back rather than in chest, the site of injury is mid or left side of chest where heart actually located, pain can radiate to the left side of the jaw into left arm but not the chest.

Front 51

4. Kate was in a major car accident. You notice that she has heparin in her purse when she is brought to the emergency room (ER). Should you be concerned about this? Explain.

Back 51

Yes. Heparin is a blood thinner, we would be concerned about any internal bleeding due to major car accident.

Front 52

5. Xavier's compalint is that he has been having severe chest pains. You perform an EKG and everything is within normal limits. Should you perform an echocardiogram? Why or why not?

Back 52

Yes because an echocardiogram can show that there is blockage of blood flow in the coronary vessels, that would not show on EKG.

Front 53

6. Explain the action potential of contractile cardiac muscle cells.

Back 53

Depolarization is cardiac cells resting membrane potential at -90 mv, excitation spreads through gap junctions, fast sodium channels open for rapid depolarization. Plateau phase is slow calcium channels open, let calcium enter from outside cell and from storage in sarcoplasmic reticulum, while potassium channels close. Repolarization is calcium channels close and potassium channels open and -90 mv is restored as potassium leaves the cell. Refractory period is very long so heart can fill.

Front 54

7. Why do you think a person might become fatigue if they are developing heart failure?

Back 54

Congestive heart failure is inability to provide adequate blood supply to other organs, in example decreased pumping efficiency.

Front 55

8. If there is a problem with the heart as a pump, could this cause peripheral edema (swelling)? Explain.

Back 55

Yes. If the right side of the heart fails it is unable to eject blood returning through venae cavae into the pulmonary circulation and blood backs up into the systemic circulation and then edema in distal parts of the body and swelling in lower extremities.

Front 56

9. What is the purpose of taking a patient's pulse? Include 2 reasons why a person may have a pulse rate of 100 beats per minute. Explain your answers.

Back 56

Arrhythmia is variation from the normal rhythm, Atrial flutter is rapid but regular depolarizaiton at rate between 200 to 280 beats per minutes. Fibrillation is uncontrolled excitation and relaxation of cardiac cells.

Front 57

10. Albumin is a major plasma protein. Why does a patient with a blood albumin level of 1g/dl have a tendency to swell?

Back 57

Albumin is made in the liver & synthesize amino acids from diet and use amino acids to make albumin (catabolism). Albumin maintains blood osmotic pressure, if lack of blood protein in blood and albumin increased in tissues (solute) solvent follows solute, water move out of bloodstream into tissues causing edema.

Front 58

11. A female patient on dialysis has a RBC count of 1 million/uL and low oxygen levels. Which hormone, secreted by the kidney, can be assumed to be deficient?

Back 58

Erythropoeitin from kidney in the bone increases RBC production if deficient

Front 59

12. Explain the electrical pathway of the heart as shown on an EKG.

Back 59

P wave is atrial depolarization/ contraction

QRS complex is ventricular depolarization

T wave is ventricular repolarization or relaxation

Front 60

13. Define the term cardiac output (CO)? Calculate the stroke volume for a person with a heart rate at 70 beats per minute and a cardiac output of 5.5 liters/minute.

Back 60

Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped out of a ventricle in one minute. Cardiac output calculated as cardiac output is stroke volume multiplied by heart rate. 5.5 liters/minute multiplied by 70 beats per minutes = 285. Stroke volume is volume of blood pumped per beat. Heart rate is beats per minute. Normal cardiac output is 5.5 liters/minute

Front 61

14. What is the cardiac reserve? How long does it take for a drop of blood to pass from the right atrium, travel systemically, and then return to the right atrium?

Back 61

One minute. Cardiac reserve refers to the difference between rate at which the heart pumps blood and its maximum capacity for pumping blood at any given time. A measurement of cardiac reserve may be health indicator for some medical condition.

Front 62

15. How does the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system affect the rate of heart contractions?

Back 62

Norepinephrine and epinephrine. Sympathetic stimulated by norepinephrine and epinephrine is increased rate. Parasympathetic body at rest and digest that decreases heart rate.

Front 63

16. List three differences types of leukocytes and the function of each.

Back 63

Basophils release histamine and mediators of inflammation. Eosinophils kill parasitic worms, for immunity and allergies. Neurtrophils are phagocytize bacteria.

Front 64

17. Mrs. Carol's baby died during her pregnancy and she spontaneously aborted. The baby and mother were not Rh compatible. Explain to the patient why her baby died. What could have happened during her pregnancy?

Back 64

Rh negative mother with Rh positive fetus, cells from Rh-positive fetus enter mother's bloodstream, woman becomes sensitized and antibodies form to fight Rh-positive blood cells in the next Rh-positive pregnancy, maternal antibodies attack fetal blood cells.

Front 65

18. What is the function of the hematopoietic stem cell? Which blood cells are derived from the myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem cells respectively?

Back 65

Hematopoietic stem cells are the stem cells that give rise to all the other blood cells through the process of hematopoiesis. They are derived from mesoderm and located in the red bone marrow, which is contained in the core of most bones. Myeloid cells include monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, erythrocytes, dendritic cells, megakaryocytes or platelets. Lymphoid cells include T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells.

Front 66

19. What are the steps involved in hemostasis?

Back 66

1. Break in vessel wall

2. Blood escaping through break

3. Platelets adhere to each other, to end of broken vessel, and to exposed collagen

4. Platelet plug helps control blood loss.

Protein, Vitamin K and Calcium are needed for blood clotting

Front 67

20. Briefly explain the extrinsic and intrinsic pathway of blood clotting? Is calcium needed for these processes to occur? Explain your answer.

Back 67

When injury, blood form clot and blood vessel and tissue, injury can occur at blood vessel (intrinsic) and tissue (extrinsic), clotting factor protein help make thrombin that forms clots. Endothelium (single squamous cells) surrounded by collagen, platelets float and doesn't mix with collagen, if they come in contact causes clot, Fibrin strands go through clot and pull tighter, fibrin to fibrinolysis and thrombus disintegrates. Exchange only occurs at capillaries.

Front 68

21. A father has erythrocytes with anti-A and anti-B antibodies. What is his blood type? Will all his off-springs have the same blood type? Explain your answer.

Back 68

O blood is his blood type. No not all off spring will have the same blood type, depends on the mother's blood type.