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206 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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negative feedback
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This process reverses the initiating stimulus
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positive feedback
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the response of the system goes in the same direction as the originating stimulus that set it in motion
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Vasodilation
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Widening of a blood vessel, as by the action of a nerve or drug.
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Vasoconstriction
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Constriction of a blood vessel, as by a nerve or drug.
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Homeostasis
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Maintenance of constant conditions in the internal environment ex. Regulation of arterial pressure, blood glucose, carbon dioxide and oxygen concentrations in the ECF.
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Intracellular fluid (ICF)
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* The fluid inside of cells
** contains large amounts of potassium, magnesium and phosphate ions. |
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Extracellular fluid (ECF)
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* The fluid that surrounds the cells
* contains sodium, chloride, bicarbonate, & nutrients for cells. * is divided into 1) blood plasma which is inside the vascular system and 2) interstitial fluid, which is outside the vascular system, surrounding cells. |
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Interstitial fluid
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fluid in the tissues
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Ionization
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Process in which an atom or molecule acquires a positive charge (by losing electrons) or negative charge (by gaining electron)
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Cation
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The one that looses an electrons acquires a positive charge, more protons
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Anion
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The particle that gains electrons acquires a negative charge. More electrons
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Electrolyte
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salts that ionize in water and form solutions capable of conducting electricity.
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Buffer
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Chemical solutions that resist change in PH
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Androgenic steroid
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group of synthetic hormones that promote the storage of protein and the growth of tissue, sometimes used by athletes to increase muscle size and strength
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Denaturation
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change in the three dimensional conformation of a protein that destroys its enzymatic or other functional properties, usually caused by extremes of temperature or ph
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Cofactor
(definition and examples) |
A nonprotein partner such as a metal ion or coenzyme needed for an enzyme to function. EX: zinc copper magnesium and calcium ions. These induce it to fold.
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Coenzymes
(definition and examples) |
Organic cofactors usually derived from Niacin, riboflavin, and other water-soluble vitamins.
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Phospholipids
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an amphiphilic molecule composed of two fatty acids and a phosphate-containing group bonded to the three carbons of a glycerol molecule; composes most of the molecules of the plasma membrane and other cellular membranes.
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Ligand
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a chemical that binds reversibly to a receptor site on a protein, such as a neurotransmitter that binds to a membrane receptor or substrate that binds to an enzyme.
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Enzyme
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are proteins that function as biological catalysts.
** -ase at the end indicates it |
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Substrate
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The substance an enzyme acts upon.
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Triglyceride
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A lipid composed of three fatty acids joined to a glycerol; also called a tricylglycerol or neutral fat.
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What are the major cations and anions in the body?
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Calcium, sodium. Magnesium, potassium.
sodium bicarbonate sodium chloride |
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ATP
Adenosine triphosphate |
A molecule composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups that function as a universal energy transfer molecule yields adenosine diphosphate ADP an inorganic phosphate group (Pi) upon hydrolysis
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Kinase
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Any enzyme that adds an inorganic phosphate (Pi) group to another organic molecule. Also called phosphokinase.
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Phosphorylation
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Addition of an inorganic phosphate (Pi) group to an organic molecule
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Electron carriers
(know examples) |
A molecule that accepts electrons from electron donors and donates them to electron acceptors
EX: NADH & FADH |
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Anaerobic fermentation
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a reduction reaction independent of oxygen that converts pyruvic acid to lactic acid and enables glycolysis to continue under anaerobic conditions.
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Aerobic respiration
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Oxidation of organic compounds in a reaction series that requires oxygen and produces ATP
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ATP synthase
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A specific channel protein that is permeable to H+.
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Lipolysis
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breaking down fats for fuel
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Beta oxidation
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The oxidative degradation of saturated fatty acids in which two-carbon units are sequentially removed from the molecule with each turn of the cycle.
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Deamination
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The removal of an amino group (-NH2)
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**** Be familiar with glycolysis, and the process of aerobic respiration. Where does it occur within the cell and What is final electron acceptor?
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****
OXYGEN |
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What is produced as a result of the Kreb’s cycle?
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FADH2, NADH, ATP,
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Glycocalyx
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a layer of carbohydrate molecules covalently bonded to the phospholipids and protein molecules of a plasma membrane; forms a surface coat on all human cells.
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Cystic fibrosis
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A hereditary disease of the exocrine glands, usually developing during early childhood and affecting mainly the pancreas, respiratory system, and sweat glands. It is characterized by the production of abnormally viscous mucus by the affected glands, usually resulting in chronic respiratory infections and impaired pancreatic function.
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Receptor
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A cell or organ specialized to detect a stimulus such as taste cell or the eye. A protein molecule that binds and responds to a chemical such as a hormone, neurotransmitter or odor molecule.
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Passive transport
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The movement of a chemical substance across a cell membrane without expenditure of energy by the cell, as in diffusion
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Active transport
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the carrier mediated transport of a solute through a membrane up its concentration gradient, using energy provided by ATP.
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Simple diffusion
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Net movement of particles from a place of high concentration to a place of lower concentration as a result of their constant, spontaneous motion.
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Osmosis
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The net flow of water from one side of a selectively permeable membrane to the other.
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Tonicity
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Is the ability of a solution to affect the fluid volume and pressure in a cell.
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Isotonic
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The total concentration of nonpermeating solutes is the same as in the ICF hence; isotonic solution causes no change in cell volume or shape.
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Hypotonic
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A solution has a lower concentration of nonpermeating solutes than the intracellular fluid. Cells in a hypotonic solution will absorb water.
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Hypertonic
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A solution that has a higher concentration of nonpermeating solutes than the ICF, It causes the cell to loose water and shrivel.
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Facilitated diffusion
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Transport of particles through a selectively permeable membrane, down their concentration gradient, by a carrier that does not directly consume ATP.
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Cotransport
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Transport of two or more solutes simultaneously in the same direction through a membrane by either facilitated diffusion or active transport.
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Hydrostatic pressure
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The physical force generated by a liquid such as blood or tissue fluid, as opposed to osmotic and atmospheric pressure.
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Secondary active transport
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Transport of solute particles by a carrier that does not in itself use ATP but depends on concentration gradients produced by primary active transport.
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Be familiar with the distribution of Na+, K+ in terms of intracellular vs. extracellular distribution.
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Na+ is extracellular. K+ intracellular. When channels open Na+ comes in K+ goes out and the cell is then depolarized.
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Be familiar with the types of active and passive transport?
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Passive: from Higher concentration to
Lower moves with the gradient. Active: Moves against its concentration gradient from Lower to Higher. |
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Passive:
1. Filtration 2. Simple diffusion 3. Facilitated diffusion 4. Osmosis. |
Active
1. Primary active transport pump 2. Secondary active transport. 3. Bulk transport (endocytosis and exocytosis) |
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What is meant by the sodium-potassium pump? How does it work? Why is it important to the functioning of the body?
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The NA+/K+ is an antiport that moves Na+ out of a cell and K+ into it. It serves for control of cell volume secondary active transport, heat production and maintenance of an electrical membrane potential.
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cytokinesis
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Organic process consisting of the division of the cytoplasm of a cell following karyokinesis bringing about the separation into two daughter cells
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Mitosis
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Cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes has four stages
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Contact inhibition
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Cessation of replication of dividing cells that come into contact.
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Neoplasm
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An abnormal new mass of tissue that serves no purpose
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Oncology
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The branch of medicine concerned with the study and treatment of tumors
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Benign
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Not dangerous to health; not recurrent or progressive (especially of a tumor)
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Malignant
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Dangerous to health; characterized by progressive and uncontrolled growth (especially of a tumor)
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Metastasis
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The spreading of a disease (especially cancer) to another part of the body
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Tumor suppressor gene
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A suppressor gene that blocks unscheduled cell division
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Oncogene
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A gene that disposes normal cells to change into cancerous tumor cells
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cyclin-dependent kinase
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An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of a proenzyme to an active enzyme
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Apoptosis
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Programmed cell death (the cell uses specialized cellular machinery to kill itself)
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Hyperplasia
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Abnormal increase in number of cells
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Hypertrophy
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Abnormal enlargement of a body part or organ
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Neoplasia
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The pathological process that results in the formation and growth of a tumor
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Atrophy
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Any weakening or degeneration (especially through lack of use)
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Necrosis
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The localized death of living cells (as from infection or the interruption of blood supply)
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Regeneration
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(biology) growth anew of lost tissue or destroyed parts or organs
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Fibrosis
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Development of excess fibrous connective tissue in an organ
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Keloids
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Raised pinkish scar tissue at the site of an injury; results from excessive tissue repair
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What is histamine and what role does it play in the process of wound healing?
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Amine formed from histamine that stimulates gastric secretions and dilates blood vessels; released by the human immune system during allergic reactions
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Cyanosis
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A bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes; a sign that oxygen in the blood is dangerously diminished (as in carbon monoxide poisoning)
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Erythema
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Abnormal redness of the skin resulting from dilation of blood vessels (as in sunburn or inflammation)
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Jaundice
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Yellowing of the skin and the whites of the eyes caused by an accumulation of bile pigment (bilirubin) in the blood; can be a symptom of gallstones or liver infection or anemia
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Pallor
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Unnatural lack of color in the skin (as from bruising or sickness or emotional distress)
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Melanin
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Insoluble pigments that account for the color of e.g. skin
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Hematoma
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A localized swelling filled with blood
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Diaphoresis-
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The process of the sweat glands of the skin secreting a salty fluid
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Eschar
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A dry scab formed on the skin following a burn or cauterization of the skin
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Debridement
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Surgical removal of foreign material and dead tissue from a wound in order to prevent infection and promote healing
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Striae
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a slight or narrow furrow, ridge, stripe, or streak, esp. one of a number in parallel arrangement: striae of muscle fiber.
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Decubitus ulcers
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A chronic ulcer of the skin caused by prolonged pressure on it (as in bedridden patients)
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Ischemia
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A decrease in the blood supply to a bodily organ, tissue, or part caused by constriction or obstruction of the blood vessels.
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Mineralization
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The deposition of calcium salts in abnormal parts of the skeleton
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Osteoclasts
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Cell that functions in the breakdown and resorption of bone tissue
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Osteoblasts
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A cell from which bone develops
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Epiphyseal plate
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is a hyaline cartilage plate in the metaphysis at each end of a long bone. The plate is found in children and adolescents; in adults, who have stopped growing, the plate is replaced by an epiphyseal line.
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Intramembranous ossification
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is one of the two essential processes during fetal development resulting in the creation of bone tissue. Cartilage is not present. It is also an essential process during the natural healing of bone fractures[2] and the rudimentary formation of bones of the head.[3]
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endochondral ossification
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is one of the two essential processes during fetal development resulting in the creation of bone tissue. Cartilage is present. It is also an essential process during the rudimentary formation of long bones,[2] the growth of the length of long bones,[3] and the natural healing of bone fractures
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ectopic ossification
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a pathological condition in which bone arises in tissues not in the osseous system and in connective tissues usually not manifesting osteogenic properties
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Calculus
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A hard lump produced by the concretion of mineral salts; found in hollow organs or ducts of the body
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Osteoporosis
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Abnormal loss of bony tissue resulting in fragile porous bones attributable to a lack of calcium; most common in postmenopausal women
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Hypocalcemia
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Abnormally low level of calcium in the blood; associated with hypoparathyroidism or kidney malfunction or vitamin D deficiency
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Calcitonin
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Thyroid hormone that tends to lower the level of calcium in the blood plasma and inhibit resorption of bone
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Parathyroid hormone
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Hormone synthesized and released into the blood stream by the parathyroid glands; regulates phosphorus and calcium in the body and functions in neuromuscular excitation and blood clotting
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interstitial growth
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Bones increase in length
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Gout
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A painful inflammation of the big toe and foot caused by defects in uric acid metabolism resulting in deposits of the acid and its salts in the blood and joints
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Osteoarthritis
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Chronic breakdown of cartilage in the joints; the most common form of arthritis occurring usually after middle age
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rheumatoid arthritis
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A chronic autoimmune disease with inflammation of the joints and marked deformities; something (possibly a virus) triggers an attack on the synovium by the immune system, which releases cytokines that stimulate an inflammatory reaction that can lead to the destruction of all components of the joint
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range of motion
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The area through which a joint may normally be freely and painlessly moved, the range of flexion and extension of a joint
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acetylcholinesterase
also known as AChE, |
An enzyme that degrades the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, producing choline and an acetate group. It is mainly found at neuromuscular junctions and cholinergic synapses in the central nervous system, where its activity serves to terminate synaptic transmission.
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Rigor mortis
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Muscular stiffening that begins 2 to 4 hours after death and lasts for about 4 days
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Depolarization
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is a change in a cell's membrane potential, making it more positive, or less negative.
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Repolarization
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refers to the change in membrane potential that returns the membrane potential to a negative value after the depolarization phase of an action potential has just previously changed the membrane potential to a positive value. Repolarization results from the movement of positively charged potassium ions out of the cell.
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Creatine kinase
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An enzyme present in muscle, brain, and other tissues of vertebrates that catalyzes the reversible conversion of ADP and phosphocreatine into ATP and creatine
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Myokinase
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a crystallizable enzyme that promotes the reversible transfer of phosphate groups in ADP with the formation of ATP and adenylic acid and that occurs in muscle and other tissues
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Multi-unit smooth muscle
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The multi-unit smooth muscle fibers have no interconnecting bridges. They are mingled with connective tissue fibers.
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Tropomyosin
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Any of a group of muscle proteins that bind to molecules of actin and troponin to regulate the interaction of actin and myosin.
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Flaccid paralysis
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Weakness or loss of muscle tone resulting from injury or disease of the nerves innervating the muscles
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Spastic paralysis
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A loss or deficiency of motor control with involuntary spasms caused by permanent brain damage present at birth
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Creatine phosphate
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An organic compound of creatine and phosphoric acid; found in the muscles of vertebrates where its hydrolysis releases energy for muscular contraction
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Phosphagen system
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An anaerobic energy system in which the generation of ATP is coupled with the exergonic (energy-releasing) breakdown of phosphocreatine stored in muscle cells. The breakdown frees inorganic phosphate, which then combines with ADP to form ATP. The ATP-PC system is the quickest source of ATP for muscle actions. Athletes in power events lasting up to 10 s (e.g. 100 m sprints) derive most of their ATP from this system
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glycogen-lactic acid system
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Muscles also have big reserves of a complex carbohydrate called glycogen. Glycogen is a chain of glucose molecules. A cell splits glycogen into glucose. Then the cell uses anaerobic metabolism (anaerobic means "without oxygen") to make ATP and a byproduct called lactic acid from the glucose.
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hyperpolarization
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The condition of a neuron immediately following an action potential when the potential difference across the cell surface membrane becomes more negative than the normal resting potential
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Oxygen- debt
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A cumulative deficit of oxygen resulting from intense exercise; the deficit must be made up when the body returns to rest
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Adenylate cyclase
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An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of cylic AMP from ATP
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Myosin light-chain kinase
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a calcium/calmodulin-dependent enzyme that phosphorylates the light chains of smooth muscle myosin and initiates contraction; in skeletal muscle, phosphorylation modulates tension during contraction.
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Troponin
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is a complex of three regulatory proteins that is integral to muscle contraction[1] in skeletal and cardiac muscle, but not smooth muscle.
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Adrenergic synapse
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Activated by or capable of releasing epinephrine or an epinephrine like substance, especially in the sympathetic nervous system: adrenergic nerve
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EPSP
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The change in potential which is produced in the membrane of the next neuron when an impulse which has an excitatory influence arrives at the synapse; it is a local change in the direction of depolarization; summation of these potential's can lead to discharge of an impulse by the neuron
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IPSP
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the change in potential produced in the membrane of the next neuron when an impulse that has an inhibitory influence arrives at the synapse; it is a local change in the direction of hyperpolarization; the frequency of discharge of a given neuron is determined by the extent to which impulses that lead to excitatory postsynaptic potentials predominate over those that cause inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
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Dermatome
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A surgical instrument used to cut very thin slices of skin
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Ascending tracts
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travel toward the brain, are sensory,
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Descending tracts
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motor tracts
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Upper motor neurons
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are motor neurons that originate in the motor region of the cerebral cortex or the brain stem and carry motor information down to the final common pathway, that is, any motor neurons that are not directly responsible for stimulating the target muscle.
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Lower motor neurons
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are the motor neurons connecting the brainstem and spinal cord to muscle fibers, bringing the nerve impulses from the upper motor neurons out to the muscles. A lower motor neuron's axon terminates on an effector (muscle).
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Cerebrospinal fluid
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Clear liquid produced in the ventricles of the brain; fills and protects cavities in the brain and spinal cord
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Parasympathomimetic
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having an effect similar to that resulting from stimulation of the parasympathetic nervous system "these drugs slow the heart rate"
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Sympathomimetic
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Relating to epinephrine (its release or action) an agent that mimics the stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system
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Atropine
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A poisonous crystalline alkaloid extracted from the nightshade family; used as an antispasmodic and to dilate the eye pupil; also administered in large amounts as an antidote for organophosphate nerve agents or organophosphate insecticides
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Sympatholytic
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drug is a medication, which inhibits the postganglionic functioning of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS).[1] Though some are indicated for various functions, they can all be used as antihypertensives.
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Rod cells
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A visual receptor cell that is sensitive to dim light
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Cone cells
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A visual receptor cell in the retina that is sensitive to bright light and to color
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glaucoma
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An eye disease that damages the optic nerve and impairs vision (sometimes progressing to blindness) contrary to popular belief, glaucoma is not always caused by elevated intraocular pressure"
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Rhodopsin
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A red photopigment in the retinal rods of vertebrates; dissociates into retinene by light
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Glutamate
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A salt or ester of glutamic acid, especially one that functions as a neurotransmitter that excites cells of the central nervous system.
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Sensory transduction
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refers to the conversion of a signal from one form to another, in sensory terms, it is important for converting external stimuli in to a form that our brain can understand.
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Modality
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the application of a therapeutic agent, usually a physical therapeutic agent one of the primary forms of sensation, as vision or touch.
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Pitch
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frequency of a sound
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Loudness
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The magnitude of sound (usually in a specified direction)
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Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)-
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A gonadotropic hormone that is secreted by the anterior pituitary and stimulates growth of Graafian follicles in female mammals, and activates the cells in male mammals that form sperm
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Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
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A gonadotropic hormone that is secreted by the anterior pituitary; stimulates ovulation in female mammals and stimulates androgen release in male mammals
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Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-
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A hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that stimulates the adrenal cortex
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Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
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Hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary gland (trade name Pitressin) and also by nerve endings in the hypothalamus; affects blood pressure by stimulating capillary muscles and reduces urine flow by affecting reabsorption of water by kidney tubules
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Oxytocin
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Hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary gland (trade name Pitocin); stimulates contractions of the uterus and ejection of milk
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Glucagons
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A hormone secreted by the pancreas; stimulates increases in blood sugar levels in the blood (thus opposing the action of insulin)
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Insulin
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Hormone secreted by the isles of Langerhans in the pancreas; regulates storage of glycogen in the liver and accelerates oxidation of sugar in cells
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Aldosterone
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A corticosteroid hormone that is secreted by the cortex of the adrenal gland; regulates salt (sodium and potassium) and water balance
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Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF)
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A hormonal substance produced by the right atrium of the heart that stimulates the excretion of sodium and water by the kidneys and helps regulate blood pressure
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Cortisol
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An adrenal-cortex hormone (trade names Hydrocortone or Cortef) that is active in carbohydrate and protein metabolism
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Estrogen
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A general term for female steroid sex hormones that are secreted by the ovary and responsible for typical female sexual characteristics -and progesterone- A steroid hormone (trade name Lipo-Lutin) produced in the ovary; prepares and maintains the uterus for pregnancy
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Testosterone
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A potent androgenic hormone produced chiefly by the testes; responsible for the development of male secondary sex characteristics
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Gastrin
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Polypeptide hormone secreted by the mucous lining of the stomach; when peptides and amino acids are present in the small intestine stimulates the secretion of gastric acid
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Hematocrit
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The ratio of the volume occupied by packed red blood cells to the volume of the whole blood as measured by a hematocrit
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Serum
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The clear yellowish fluid obtained upon separating whole blood into its solid and liquid components after it has been allowed to clot. Also called blood serum
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Albumin
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A class of monomeric proteins that are soluble in water, and are coagulated by heat; they occur in egg white, milk etc; they function as carrier protein for steroids, fatty acids, and thyroid hormones and play a role in stabilizing extracellular fluid volume
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Urea
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The chief solid component of mammalian urine; synthesized from ammonia and carbon dioxide and used as fertilizer and in animal feed and in plastics
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Amenia
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A deficiency of red blood cells.
Absence or suppression of normal menstrual flow. |
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Heparin
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A polysaccharide produced in basophils (especially in the lung and liver) and that inhibits the activity of thrombin in coagulation of the blood; it (trade names Lipo-Hepin and Liquaemin) is used as an anticoagulant in the treatment of thrombosis and in heart surgery
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Erythropoietin
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A glycoprotein secreted by the kidneys that stimulates the production of red blood cells
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Thrombin
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An enzyme that acts on fibrinogen in blood causing it to clot
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Fibrin
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A white insoluble fibrous protein formed by the action of thrombin on fibrinogen when blood clots; it forms a network that traps red cells and platelets
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Prostacyclin
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A prostaglandin produced in the walls of blood vessels that acts as a vasodilator and inhibits platelet aggregation
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Plasmin
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an important enzyme (EC 3.4.21.7) present in blood that degrades many blood plasma proteins, most notably, fibrin clots. The degradation of fibrin is termed fibrinolysis. In humans, the plasmin protein is encoded by the PLG gene.
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Embolism
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Occlusion of a blood vessel by an embolus (a loose clot or air bubble or other particle)
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Stroke volume
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the volume of blood pumped from one ventricle of the heart with each beat. It is calculated by subtracting the volume of blood in the ventricle at the end of a beat (called end-systolic volume) from the volume of blood just prior to the beat (called end-diastolic volume).
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Ejection fraction
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the fraction of blood pumped out of a ventricle with each heart beat. The
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Ascites
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Accumulation of serous fluid in peritoneal cavity
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Left-sided heart failure
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a life-threatening condition in which the left side of the heart cannot pump enough blood to the body.
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Right-sided heart failure
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a condition in which the right side of the heart loses its ability to pump blood efficiently.
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Systole
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The contraction of the chambers of the heart (especially the ventricles) to drive blood into the aorta and pulmonary artery
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Diastole
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The widening of the chambers of the heart between two contractions when the chambers fill with blood
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Tachycardia
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Abnormally rapid heartbeat (over 100 beats per minute)
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Bradycardia
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Abnormally slow heartbeat
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Chronotropic
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Things that affect or change the heart rate or pulse (i.e. the time between "p waves").
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Inotropic
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an agent that alters the force or energy of muscular contractions. Negatively inotropic agents weaken the force of muscular contractions. Positively inotropic agents increase the strength of muscular contraction
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Perfusion
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the process of nutritive delivery of arterial blood to a capillary bed in the biological tissue.
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Systolic pressure
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blood pressure (as measured by a sphygmomanometer) during the contraction of the left ventricle of the heart
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Diastolic pressure
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The lowest arterial blood pressure during the cardiac cycle; reflects relaxation and dilation of a heart chamber.
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Mean arterial pressure
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a term used in medicine to describe an average blood pressure in an individual.[1] It is defined as the average arterial pressure during a single cardiac cycle
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Hypertension
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A common disorder in which blood pressure remains abnormally high (a reading of 140/90 mm Hg or greater)
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ACE
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angiotensin-converting enzyme in lungs
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Edema
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Swelling from excessive accumulation of watery fluid in cells, tissues, or serous cavities
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Anaphylactic shock
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A severe and rapid and sometimes fatal hypersensitivity reaction to a substance (especially a vaccine or penicillin or shellfish or insect venom) to which the organism has become sensitized by previous exposure
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TIA
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Brief episode in which the brain gets insufficient blood supply; symptoms depend on the site of the blockage
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CVA
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A sudden loss of consciousness resulting when the rupture or occlusion of a blood vessel leads to oxygen lack in the brain
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T-lymphocytes
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group of white blood cells known as lymphocytes, and play a central role in cell-mediated immunity. They can be distinguished from other lymphocyte types, such as B cells and natural killer cells by the presence of a special receptor on their cell surface called T cell receptors (TCR).
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Hyperemia
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Increased blood in an organ or other body part
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Diapedesis
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The migration of blood cells (especially leucocytes) through the intact walls of blood vessels into the surrounding tissue
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Interferon
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antiviral protein produced by cells that have been invaded by a virus; inhibits replication of the virus
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Interleukin
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Any of several lymphokines that promote macrophages and killer T cells and B cells and other components of the immune system
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Know the signs of inflammation.
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Redness, swelling, heat, pain, and loss of function
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Calcitriol
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is a form of Vitamin D3 with three alcohol groups. It increases gastrointestinal calcium absorption, stimulates osteoclastic calcium resorption from bone, facilitates the effect parathyroid hormone (PTH) has on bone resorption, and increases renal tubular absorption of calcium. Production of calcitriol by the cells of the proximal tubule of the nephron in the kidney is stimulated by hypocalcemia and hyperphosphatemia as well as parathyroid hormone.
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B-lymphocytes
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lymphocytes that play a large role in the humoral immune response (as opposed to the cell-mediated immune response, which is governed by T cells). The principal functions of B cells are to make antibodies against antigens, perform the role of Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs) and eventually develop into memory B cells after activation by antigen interaction. B cells are an essential component of the adaptive immune system.
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Action potential
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Troponin is attached to protein tropomyosin & lies within the groove between actin filaments in muscle tissue. In a relaxed muscle, tropomyosin blocks attachment site for myosin crossbridge, thus preventing contraction. When muscle cell is stimulated to contract by an action potential, Ca+ channels open in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and release Ca+ into the sarcoplasm. Some of this Ca+ attaches to troponin, causing a conformational change that moves tropomyosin out of the way so that the cross bridges can attach to actin and produce muscle contraction.
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Cholinergic synapse
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A receptor is cholinergic if it uses acetylcholine as its neurotransmitter[1]Cholinergic means related to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine,[2] and is typically used in a neurological perspective. The parasympathetic nervous system is entirely cholinergic. Neuromuscular junctions, preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system, the basal forebrain, and brain stem complexes are also cholinergic. In addition, the receptor for the merocrine sweat glands are also cholinergic since acetylocholine is released from post ganglionic sympathetic neurons
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single-unit smooth muscle
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The muscle fibers making up the single-unit muscle are gathered into dense sheets or bands. Though the fibers run roughly parallel, they are densely and irregularly packed together, most often so that the narrower portion of one fiber lies against the wider portion of its neighbor. These fibers have connections, the plasma membranes of two neighboring fibers form gap junctions that act as low resistance pathway for the rapid spread of electrical signals throughout the tissue
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Resting membrane potential
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The potential difference between the electrical charges inside a cell and outside the cell when the cell is in a resting state (e.g. when a neuron is not conducting a nerve impulse, or when a muscle fiber is not producing tension). The resting membrane potential is established by an unequal distribution of charged ions on either side of the cell surface membrane. In a motor neuron, the inside of the cell is negatively charged relative to the positively charged outside and the resting membrane potential is about 60 mV.
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