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226 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the true meaning of Physiology? |
"knowledge of nature" |
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What is the definition of physiology? |
The study of how living organisms function |
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Physiology is ________________ with many other disciplines. |
inter-related |
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What is the idea of homeostasis? |
The maintenance of relatively constant body conditions - despite changes in the environment - through a variety of regulatory mechanisms |
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Who came up with homeostasis? |
French physiologist Claude Bernard
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What did Claude Bernard originally want to be? |
A playwright of comedy and drama |
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Who was best known for his work on the medical uses of X rays and for the "Emergency Theory"? |
Walter Cannon (1929) |
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Who coined the actual term "homeostasis"? |
Walter Cannon |
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What is the "Emergency Theory?" |
Part of the stress response (fight or flight response) |
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What does "homeo" mean? |
similar |
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What does "stasis" mean? |
State or condition |
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What does negative feedback result in? |
Return to homeostasis |
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What is negative feedback? |
Response mechanism opposes direction of change - when the organism attempts to compensate for the change |
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What happens when compensation fails? |
Illness or disease |
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Name 3 Great Public Health Achievements in the US between 1900 and 1999 |
Recognition of tobacco use as hazard Motor Vehicle safety Control of infectious diseases |
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What is unique about the trend of motor vehicle safety? |
Miles being driven has gone up, yet deaths have gone down significantly |
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"Everyone is entitled to their own opinion, but not their own facts." Who said this? |
Daniel Patrick Moynihan |
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What happened in Flint, Michigan? |
Stop taking water from Detroit Lake and take water from Flint, Michigan. Water from river is more corrosive than from the lake. Push water through pipes and the acidity of the water pulled the lead out of the pipes and poisoned the city. Government ignored scientists about high acidity. |
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What are symptoms of lead poisoning? |
Headaches Irritability Reduced sensations Constipation Poor appetite Difficulty Sleeping |
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Science = ? |
"to know" |
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What is science? |
Science is a mechanism for learning about natural phenomena, through observation and experimentation |
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Hypothesis |
Testable, explanatory statement |
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Fact |
Hypothesis supported beyond reasonable doubt |
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Theory |
Principle that incorporates facts into a single, coherent, predictive explanation |
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What is the acronym for the characteristics of Science? |
CONPTT |
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What does CONPTT? |
Consistent Observable Natural Predictive Testable Tentative |
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Define consistent |
Repeatble |
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Define observable |
event or evidence of its occurrence can be observed (detected) |
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Define natural |
Cause or mechanism can be demonstrated |
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Define predictive |
The natural cause can be used to make subsequent predictions |
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Define testable |
These predictions are testable (hypotheses) |
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Define tentative |
subject to modification, correction with additional studies |
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An event does NOT have to be ___________ directly to be understood. |
observed |
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Science continually refines understanding (___________!) |
tentative |
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What is non-science? |
Any system of knowledge/thought that can NOT be addressed by the scientific method |
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Name some example of non-science |
Aesthetics Cultural norms Religion |
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Define Pseudoscience |
The attempt to portray non-science (also called "false science") in order to acquire unsubstantiated legitimacy |
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Name some examples of Pseudoscience |
Homeopathy; like cures like For example, if you're allergic to something, giving that thing to you in small doses will cure you. Its Pseudoscience because this hasn't been tested "Intelligent Design" |
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What is "Intelligent design?" |
An attempt to try and say that there has to be something supernatural behind the design rather than something natural |
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What is presented as scientific alternative to the theory of evolution? |
"intelligent design" |
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What was oklahomas grade on the analysis of science education standards on evolution? |
F (25%) - Only Alabama scored worse |
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What does the Oklahoma Republican Official Platform say regarding teaching evolution? |
That if evolution is taught, intelligent design and competing origin theories must also be taught |
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Change in the properties of groups of organisms over generations --> specifically, changes in population genotype frequencies. What is this defining? |
Evolution
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What does the evolution time line look like? |
Individual differences to population differences to speciation |
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What is involved with speciation? |
microevolution to macroevolution |
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Who wrote "On the Origin of Species?" And what did the book propose? |
Charles Darwin Proposed a mechanism for evolution |
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Define natural selection |
Differential survival and reproduction by individuals (genotypes) within a population --> genes passed on --> can produce appearance of "perfect" fit of organism to environment |
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What was the book Darwin wrote the foundation of? |
The "Modern Evolutionary Synthesis" incorporating data from life/physical sciences |
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Why does artificial selection work? |
Because of heritable genetic variation |
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Give an example of artificial selection |
Wild banana to a cultivated banana |
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What does genetic variation do exactly? |
What allows natural selection as well as artificial selection, its the filter |
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____________ produces genetic variation and are random. |
Mutations |
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What is the Comparative Approach? |
The use of multiple species in addressing similar questions in order to determine common vs unique biological traits |
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How is the comparative approach most effective? |
Requires understanding of evolutionary relationships among study organisms; this allows us to determine trait history |
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What has the comparative approach been essential for? |
Advancing our understanding of human biology --> "Evolutionary medicine" |
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What is the code or "language" for life? |
DNA |
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What % are humans genetically similar to chimps? |
98 to 99% similar |
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Lower on the phylogenic tree, what percent are we similar to those animals? |
25 to 55% similar |
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Hominids: "??" |
The Great Apes: Humans and the (other) apes share a common ancestor that is not shared with any other living species |
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What are the animals that are a part of The Great Apes? |
Human, Bonobo, Chimps, Gorilla, Orangutan, Gibbon |
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What is the Law of Superposition? |
Older rock layers deeper than younger rock layers |
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What develops in a human embryo week 5 of development? |
Tail develops, then (normally) regresses during weeks 8 and 9 (cell death) |
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Besides the tail, what other embryonic features occur that we dismiss? |
Yolk sac (Inactivated, or pseudo-genes) Lanugo (coat of hair developed then shed around 6 to 8 months gestation) - Other primates keep this hair |
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What are Pseudo-genes? |
Inactivated genes |
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Reappearance within an individual or trait lost in evolutionary history. What is this defining? |
Atavism
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What happens when you make a phylogenic tree with DNA sequence and morphology? |
You get concordance |
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Define Vestigial traits |
No longer perform function(s) for which they evolved; may or may not have other functions |
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Name some examples of vestigial structures? |
Wisdom teeth, tail bones, and moving ears |
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Why can't humans and other primates synthesize Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)? |
Because of a shared pseufogene (single nucleotide for the final enzyme in the four-step synthesis pathway |
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Other than humans and primates, what animals lost the ability to make Vitamin C? |
Fruit bats and Guinea pigs |
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READ THE ARTICLE ON D2L "EVOLUTION CONCISELY EXPLAINED" |
XXX |
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What chromosome shows that two chromosomes fused together? |
Chromosome number 2 |
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What is the order of systems in the body? |
CELLS --> TISSUES --> ORGANS --> ORGAN SYSTEMS |
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Name the four categories of Biomolecules |
Carbs Lipids Proteins Nucleotides and nucleic acids |
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Name 3 Carbs |
1. Monosaccharides 2. Disaccharides 3. Polysaccharides |
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Name 4 lipids |
1. Triglycerides 2. Phospholipids 3. Eicosanoids 4. Steroids |
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Name 2 proteins |
1. Amino Acids 2. Peptides |
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Name the Nucleic acids |
DNA and RNA |
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What are molecules? |
2 or more atoms bonded together |
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What are Biomolecules? |
Molecules of biological importance |
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Biomolecules always contain _____________ atoms (organic). |
Carbon |
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How are biomolecules synthesized? |
By living organisms (and food engineers) |
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What is the "currency" of energy and growth? |
Biomolecules |
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What formula are you looking for in carbohydates? |
CH20 |
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For animals like us, what is the primary way to store glucose? |
Glycogen |
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What is the most common polysaccharide on Earth? Can we work with it? |
Cellulose; no we cannot digest it |
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Most lipids have a backbone of what? |
Glycerol and 1 to 3 Fatty acids |
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What is an important characteristic of lipids? |
nonpolar and therefore are not very soluble in water |
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What does a lipid structure look like? |
Long chain of Carbons with Hydrogens attached, etc |
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In general we can categorize lipids as _____ and _______. |
Fats and oils |
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Name some chemical messengers/communication |
Eicosanoids and steroids |
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What is unique about an Eicosanoid? Give an example of one |
Carbon ring that loops around in a tail like formation Prostaglandin; important in smooth muscle contraction |
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What does a steroid look like? |
4 carbon rings with stuff added to it |
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Name some steroids |
Cholesterol and Cortisol |
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Name a major regulation component |
Phospholipids |
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What is the structure of a phospholipid? |
Lipid structure with a phosphate group added |
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What are the building blocks? |
Amino Acids |
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How do you obtain "Essential" amino acids? |
must obtain from diet |
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How many amino acids can make up proteins? |
20 different ones |
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What is a GREAT example of an amino acid not used to make proteins? |
GABA |
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Define Primary structure |
sequence of amino acids |
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Define secondary structure |
Structure due to H bonding at regular, repeated intervals |
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Define Tertiary structure |
3D shape |
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Define Quaternary structure |
when separate protein chains come together to form larger functional protein |
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What are the atoms for proteins and nucleic acids? |
Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Hydrogen |
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What groups are in nucleic acids? |
Phosphate group, carbohydrate, then a nitrogenous base ^Make up a nucleotide |
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What are nucleotides important in? |
Energy transfer and Communication |
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Nucleic acid = ? |
Polymer of nucleotides |
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What are nucleic acids important in? |
Info storage and transfer |
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Examples of exceptions for nucleic acids |
Cyclic AMP, ADP, and ATP |
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What do nucleic acids look like? |
Sugar-phosphate backbone with nitrogenous bases off to the side of chain |
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We all start life as a __________ cell. |
single |
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In adulthood, how many cells do we approx. have? |
70 trillion cells with 200+ distinguishable types but major cell structures still shared |
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What is the most common cell type humans have? |
Red blood cells |
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How many bacteria are there for every human cell? |
About 1 to 1 |
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Where does the 70 trillion cell number come from? |
30 trillion human cells and about 40 trillion bacterial cells |
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Define TISSUE |
Group of cells similar in structure and function |
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What are the four main tissue types? |
Epithelial Muscle Nervous Connective |
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Epithelial tissue |
What forms membranes and lines surfaces |
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Name characteristics of Epithelial tissue |
Always have on free surface (apical surface) Attached at other surface by basement membrane (basal lamina [on bottom]) Avascular (exception: endocrine glands) Regenerative |
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What tissue source makes all of our glands during development? |
Epithelial tissue |
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Name the three types of muscle tissues |
Skeletal Cardiac Smooth |
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What muscle type is voluntary? Which other two are not? |
Skeletal; cardiac and smooth |
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What does skeletal muscle look like? |
Multinucleated and striped |
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What does cardiac muscle look like? |
Dark stained and striated and vertical lines where the muscles connect; branch |
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What does smooth muscle look like? |
Generic in look; one nucleus per cell and not striated |
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Nervous tissue is highly specialized for ____________________________ between cells of the body. |
Electrical communication |
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Name the two cell types that make up nervous tissue: |
1. Nerve cell ("neurons") 2. Neuroglial cells (plural = neuroglia) |
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What is included in the nervous tissue? |
Brain, spinal cord, nerves |
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What type of tissue can have remarkably long extensions ("cell processes")? |
Nervous tissue |
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What does a neuron look like? |
Nucleus and projections |
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What are the dark dots around a neuron and the fuzzy tissue around it? |
Neuroglia cells |
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What tissue is the most abundant and diverse tissue? |
Connective tissue |
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What is the purpose of connective tissue? |
Support, anchor, link other structures together |
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What does connective tissue contain? |
non-living "extracellular matrix" - densely packed proteins for added strength |
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Name 3 examples of connective tissue |
Dense, regular connective tissue Hyaline cartilage Adipose tissue (fat) Blood Bone |
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Dense, regular connective tissue forms what? |
Tendons and ligaments - Connects: muscle to bone and bone to bone |
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What is it that makes for tensile strength for the dense, regular connective tissue? |
Mostly extracellular matrix |
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Where is Hyaline cartilage found? |
At ends of bones in joint cavities; also ribs, nose throat |
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What gives the Hyaline cartilage the support and reinforcement? |
Mostly the extracellular matrix |
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What is Adipose tissue made up? |
Mostly cellular with little extracellular matrix; made of lipid droplets |
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What does Adipose tissue provide? |
Provides protection (cushion, insulation) |
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What tissue in the connective tissue examples have hormone production and other surprising physiological roles? |
Adipose tissue |
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Define Bioenergetics |
The study of energy flow through biological systems |
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Define metabolism |
All chemical reactions that occur within an organism |
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Chemical reactions are a critical component of bioenergetics: |
Energy storage Energy transfer Energy release |
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Define the chemical reaction rate |
Speed with which a reaction occurs; reactants consumed and products generated |
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What is a problem with chemical reactions? |
Most chemical reactions do not naturally occur fast enough to sustain life; their reaction rates are too slow to provide for cellular needs |
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What is the solution to the problem with chemical reactions? |
Enzymes are metabolic catalysts; biomolecules (protein) that increase reaction rate without being changed themselves |
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What would a typical enzymatic equation look like? |
Reactants on the left and products on the right with the enzyme in the reaction written over the arrow |
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How do enzymes work? |
They lower the activation energy required for a reaction to proceed and therefore increasing the probability that a reaction will occur |
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What is the name for reactions that release energy? |
Catabolic reactions |
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What reactions require energy to be performed? |
Anabolic |
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How do we maintain regulation? |
1. Control enzyme concentrations 2. Modulate enzyme activity [active or inactive] 3. Use different enzymes to catalyze reversible reactions 4. Maintain optimum ADP/ATP ratio |
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Give an example of controlling enzyme concentration |
Isolating within organelles, releasing when needed ^By doing this, we control the reactions that occur |
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Define Modulators [chemical] |
Factors that affect enzyme activity; increases or decreases something happening |
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Name two examples of chemical modulators |
Allosteric activators Allosteric inhibitors |
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What does a competitive inhibitor do? |
Binds to the enzyme at the binding site preventing a reaction from happening |
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Allosteric inhibitors and allosteric activators bind to what and do what? |
They bind somewhere other than the binding site on the enzyme, and cause the enzyme to either be activated or inhibited |
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What two inhibitors are similar? Whats the difference? |
Allosteric inhibitor and Competitive inhibitor; allosteric is away from binding site |
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What is one biomolecule used for storage? |
Glucose/glycogen |
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What energy use in metabolic (anabolic) reactions? |
ATP |
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What is ATP used for? |
Protein synthesis Biomolecules/Ion transport Mechanical movement |
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What do all cell membranes have? |
Proteins, lipids, and carbs, cholesterol |
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How does membrane composition change? |
Based on function of cells |
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What does the phosphobilayer do? |
Keeps things in and keep things out and it allows things to pass through |
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Name the four general functions of the cell membrane |
1. Physical isolation of intracellular compartments - Phospholipid bilayer 2. Regulation of exchange PROTEINS - Ions, nutrients, wastes, cell products 3. Communication PROTEINS 4. Structural support PROTEINS |
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Define Ligand |
The thing that binds to this receptor; triggers intracellular response |
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True membrane receptors Channel proteins Carrier or gate proteins Are all examples of what? |
Communication and regulation proteins |
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What is cytoskeleton? |
Protein structure to keep the integrity of the cell intact |
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Name the 4 ways of Movement across Membranes |
Simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion Active transport Osmosis |
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Define simple diffusion |
Passive Net movement of an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration meaning NO ENERGY |
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Define facilitated diffusion |
Passive Net movement from an area of high to low concentration with the aid of membrane-spanning proteins [channels or carriers] |
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Diffusion continues until concentrations come to ______________________. |
Equilibrium; molecular movement continues however even after equilibrium is reached |
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Where can diffusion take place? |
In an open system or across a partition that separates two systems |
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When is diffusion faster? |
- with high concentration gradients - over shorter distances - at higher temps - for smaller molecules |
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Diffusion through a membrane is faster if |
- membrane surface area is larger - membrane is thinner - concentration gradient is larger - membrane is permeable to the molecule |
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What does membrane permability to a molecule depend on? |
- the molecule's lipid solubility - the molecule's size - the lipid composition of the membrane |
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Define active transport |
Requires energy from ATP Net movement from area of low to high concentration |
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Give an example of active transport |
Sodium potassium pump |
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Define osmosis |
Passive Net movement of water from an area of low to high solute concentration; has same effect of equilibrating a solution |
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Chemical communication among/within cells is via: |
1) Gap junctions 2) Contact-dependent signals 3) "local" communication 4) "long-distance" communication |
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Where are gap junctions found? |
Cardiac muscle |
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Where are gap junctions located in the cardiac muscle? |
Intergilated disks |
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What is the function of gap junctions? |
Helps with synchronization with the cardiac muscle |
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What are contact-dependent cells? When do we see them? |
Require interaction between membrane molecules and two cells. During development of our cells |
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Give an example of a contact dependent signal |
N-CAM: nerve cell adhesion molecules |
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'What are two of the largest forms of "local" communication? |
Autocrine and Paracrine signaling |
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What is an autocrine signal? |
Acts on the same cell that secreted them |
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What is a Paracrine signal? |
Secreted by one cell and diffuse to adjacent cells |
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Paracrine AND autocrine examples? |
Histamine: causes inflammatory response Cytokines (immune system) Eicosanoids (prostaglandin) |
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What are Intracrines? |
Signals that never leave the cell like cyclic AMP and Calcium++ |
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Name examples of "long-distance" communication |
Hormones Neurohormones Neurotransmitters |
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Define hormone |
Secreted by one type of cell, endocrine cell, and gets into the blood supply, then anywhere you find a receptor, the cell will be affected |
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Define Neurohormones |
Secreted by neurons into the blood |
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Define neurotransmitters |
Released by a neuron, reaches a target cell in a short distance, and helping out the electrical signal to travel long distances |
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Define Neurocrines |
Any chemical messenger produced by a neuron |
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Give examples of |
Neurohormones Neurotransmitters Neuromodulators |
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What is a neuromodulator? |
Endorphins, neuropeptides - down regulates pain pathways |
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Define Ectocrines |
Pheromones Produced by one organism to affect another organism |
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Name general properties of RECEPTORS |
- To exert an effect, a chemical messenger must have a target cell receptor to which it can bind - These receptors are either on the cell membrane or intracellular (in cytosol or nucleus) |
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If the receptor is in the cell, the chemical messenger must be _____________. |
Lipophilic |
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What does Lipophilic mean? Give example |
Signal molecules that must have ability to cross membrane and has the ability to turn certain genes on or off Ex: Steroids |
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Lipophobic? |
Means they cant cross the membrane and the only option into the cell is by a receptor |
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How is the channel opened or closed? |
By ligand binding |
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Name some 2nd messenger types of receptors |
Receptor enzyme G protein couple receptor Integrin receptor |
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What receptor can initiate a large amount of events? Most hormones use this |
G protein couple receptor |
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Substance that competes with primary ligand by binding to receptor; causes biological response. What is this defining? |
Receptor agonist |
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Define receptor Antagonist |
Substance that competes with primary ligand by binding to receptor; with no biological response |
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When talking about hormones, use ________________ feedback. |
negative; towards homeostasis |
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Acromegaly = ? |
Extremity enlargement |
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What is Acromegaly caused by? |
Growth hormone in adulthood; renewed growth of bone and cartilage; tissue swelling |
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Define Gigantism |
Excess growth prior to puberty (tumor) Abnormal growth Same general complications as Acromegly Can lead to premature death |
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What went wrong when a guy looks like a girl? |
Androgen receptor messed up and got rid of that part of the gene |
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Only females can express the Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; only males |
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Name the three endocrine pathologies |
1. Hypersecretion --> too much hormone 2. Hyposecretion --> too little hormone 3. Abnormal target tissue respons - usually receptor of 2nd messenger problems |
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What did Aristotle write in 350 BC? |
He wrote that if you remove the testes from animals, even humans, you will see a difference in behaviors and physical outcomes |
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What is a Eunuch? |
Male castrated before puberty - No secondary sexual traits - Used as slaves or as guards and assistants to royals |
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Define Castrato |
Eunuch who was specifically castrated for their singing voice |
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What is the short history of endocrinology? |
Experiment in 1849 by A.A. Berthold - Male chicks castrated group 1, male chicks castrated then 1 teste placed back group 2, male chicks castrated and transplanted *The last two groups grew with normal male development |
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What were Berthold's major findings? |
1. Testes necessary for normal male development of secondary traits 2. Testes are transplantable; transplanted testes develop vascular supply, produce sperm 3. No specific nerves directing testicular function - Proposed a secretory, blood-borne product that came from testes was responsible for normal development |
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Very difficult to manipulate the endocrine system. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; very easy |
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Ablation is a general term for ______________. |
Removal |
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What is a double blind experiment? |
The people receiving the experiment dont know what group they are in and neither to the scientists/people giving the experiment |
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Winning vs. losing hormones??? |
Measured testosterone before tennis match, males that won the matches had higher testosterone; even just watching changes hormones if you're supporting the winning team |
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Stake outcome of an event you care about: Obame vs McCain? |
People had more hormones when Obama won the election |
