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79 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Physiology
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Study of normal body functions
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Primary tissues
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1. Muscle- contraction, generation of force
2. Nerve- initiate, transmit electrical impulses 3. Epithelial- barrier between body and external environment; exchange 4. Connective- connect, anchor, support |
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Organs
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collection of 2 or more types of tissues put together into structure that performs specific function
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Organ Systems
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collection of organs that work together to accomplish a particular task
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Body fluid compartments
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1. Total body water= 70% BW
2. Intracellular fluid = 2/3 TBW 3. Extracellular fluid = 1/3 TBW 4. Plasma = 1/5 ECF 5. Interstitial fluid |
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Negative feedback control in homeostasis
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-Primary mechanism for maintaining homeostasis (aka homeostatic control mech.)
-3 basic components: sensors (nerve receptors), control center (brain/spinal cord), effectors (muscles/glands) -Mechanisms: set point, sensors send input to integrating center which compares to set point then error signal goes to IC which sends output to brings level back to set point -inhibitory, i.e. final corrective action is opposite to the initial deviation from the normal value (or condition). |
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Positive feedback
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-loops cause rapid change (ex: ovulation)
-ex: upstroke of action potential in nerve and muscle -body uses it to bring a physiological process to a quick completion (ex: childbirth, ovulation) -does not lead to stability or regulation, but the opposite: a progressive change in one direction. |
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Feedforward control
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Term referring to an animal's ability to predict an upcoming disturbance to the homeostatic state, and to take the necessary corrective action. It is anticipatory- does not require error signals. Learned responses to known cues.
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Homeothermic
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of birds and mammals; having constant and relatively high body temp. (aka: warm-blooded)
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Poikilothermic
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of animals except birds and mammals; having body temp that varies with the environment (aka cold-blooded)
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Hypothermia
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subnormal body temp
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Hyperthermia
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abnormally high body temp (fever)
above 41 C (105.8 F), dangerous above 43 C (109.4 F), deadly |
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Mechanisms of heat transfer between body and external environment
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-radiation- thermal energy as electromagnetic waves
-conduction- thermal energy through direct contact -evaporation- heat loss through evaporation of water (insensible water loss, sweating) -convection- heat transfer by movement of fluid or air |
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Fever
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-accompanies infections
-MOs and WBCs secrete pyrogens -body temp set point increases (fever does NOT result from a failure of the thermoregulatory system) -due to the resetting of the set point in the body's thermostat (hypothalamus) -low fever enhances immune response; but fever that is too high and occurs too fast is dangerous |
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Pyrogens
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fever-inducing agents produced by bacteria, viruses, molds, and yeasts, or produced endogenously by WBC/macrophages
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Heat stroke
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an acute hyperthermia resulting from excessive exposure to heat, natural or artificial. The temp regulatory mechanisms become overwhelmed and unable to effectively deal with the heat, and body temp climbs uncontrollably
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Symptoms of heat stroke
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dry skin
vertigo headache thirst nausea muscular cramps body temp may be subnormal |
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Heat exhaustion
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effect of excessive exposure to heat, occurring among workers in hot places (i.e. furnaces, sun's heat, foundries)
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Symptoms of heat exhaustion
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normal/subnormal temp
dizziness headache nausea weakness profuse sweating sometimes delirium or collapse |
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Thermoneutral zone
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range of ambient temp over which the organism is able to maintain a constant body temp without the use of metabolically demanding mechanisms (such as more fat burning, more muscle contractions, more sweating, etc.)
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Pathology
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study of diseases;
branch of medical science that studies the causes, nature and effects of diseases and esp of the structural and functional changes produced by them |
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Symptoms
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subjective abnormalities felt by the patients
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Signs
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objective abnormalities perceptible to the examining physician
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Syndrome
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collection of symptoms and signs
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Etiology
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study or theory of all factors that cause disease and the method of their introduction to the host; the causes or origin of a disease or disorder
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Remission
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a diminution or abatement of the symptoms of a disease; also the period during which such diminution occurs
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Relapse
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the return of a disease after its apparent cessation
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Epidemiology
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the study of diseases (occurrence, distribution, and transmission) in populations
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Endemic diseases
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disease in population that is restricted to a local region
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Epidemic disease
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it has spread to many individuals at the same time in a larger region
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Pandemic disease
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an epidemic that is geographically widespread; occurring throughout a very large region, a continent, or even throughout the world
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Properties of water
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-high heat capacity
-high heat of vaporization -solvent -molecules are cohesive and adhesive (high surface tension and capillary action) -pure water freezes at 0 C but is most dense at 4 C. That is, solid water (ice) is less dense than cold liquid water -polar molecules dissolve in water |
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Acids and bases
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-An acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton acceptor
-strong acids dissociate totally, and the anions formed (like Cl- from HCl) are not bases because they do not associate with protons in solution. Only weak acids, mostly organic, dissociate partially. |
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pK' of an acid
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the pH at which the acid is half dissociated, when [A-]=[HA]
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Buffer system
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-simply a mixture of a weak acid (e.g. acetic acid) and its conjugate base (e.g. acetate ion, an anion) or a weak base (e.g. ammonia, NH3) and its conjugate acid (NH4+, a cation)
-works by reacting with any added acid or base to control the pH, as the strong acid or base is changed to a weak one |
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Definition of buffering
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ability of a solution to resist a change in pH when acid or base is added
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More effective buffer:
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make sure that the concentration of the buffering agents is large in comparison to the added acid or base
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Biomolecules
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Carbon-based (organic) molecules synthesized by living organisms.
Including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins/amino acids, and nucleic acids/nucleotides |
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Atoms
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an atom is the smallest part of an element which can take part in a chemical reaction; they are the basic building blocks of ordinary matter and can join together to form molecules
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Element
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substance made entirely from one type of atom
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Which 4 elements make up 98% of atoms in the body?
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H, O, C, N
(other 2%: P and S, etc.) |
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Common functional groups in biomolecules
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hydroxyl
sulfhydryl phosphate carboxyl amino |
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Carbohydrates (sugars)
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C,H,O in proportion of 1:2:1
Cn(H2O)n = (CH2O)n |
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Monosaccharides
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glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, 2-deoxyribose
notice hydroxyl groups which make carbs polar |
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Disaccharides
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sucrose, lactose
formed by dehydration synth. from monosaccharides (sucrose = glucose + fructose) joined by glycosidic linkage |
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Sweetest carb?
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fructose
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Polysaccharides
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starch (from plants)
glycogen (animal starch) |
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Lipids
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composed of primarily hydrogen and carbon atoms
non-polar/hydrophobic (poor solubility in water) |
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Classes of Lipids
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Triglycerides
Phospholipids Eicosanoids Steroids |
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Triglycerides
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glycerol + 3 fatty acids
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What makes triglycerides hydrophobic?
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Fatty acid chains
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Triglyceride is produced by
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dehydration synthesis from glycerol and fatty acids
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Phospholipids
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one -OH of glycerol linked to phosphate
amphipathic (amphiphilic) molecules phosphatidyl choline = lecithin |
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Amphipathic (Amphiphilic) means
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polar (hydrophilic)- phosphate group (Head)
nonpolar (hydrophobic)- FA chains (Tails) |
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Eicosanoids
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group of 20-C fatty acids with a cyclopentane ring
(prostaglandine, thromboxanes, leukotrienes) |
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Steroids
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Ring structure made of 4 C rings derived from cholesterol
Hydrophobic (NOT water soluble) |
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Sex steroids
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estradiol
testosterone progesterone |
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Adrenal steroids
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cortisol
aldosterone |
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Proteins/Amino acids
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proteins = polymers of amino acids
20 aa's are building blocks of proteins macromolecules of thousands of atoms function as receptors, enzymes, ion channels, antibodies, etc. |
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Basic structure of aa's
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R = side chain that can vary in property (polar, nonpolar, ionized)
20 diff aa's due to 20 diff R's. |
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peptide bond
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covalent bond between carboxyl group of one aa and amino group of another aa
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peptides
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generally 2-50 aa's (smaller)
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proteins
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greater than 50 aa's (huge)
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How are peptide bonds produced?
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dehydration synthesis
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Primary protein structure
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sequence of aa's
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Secondary protein structure
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H-bonding between amino hydrogen of 1 aa and carboxyl oxygen of another aa
(alpha helixes and beta pleated sheets) |
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Tertiary protein structure
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formation of bends and loops in polypeptide chain due to interactions between R groups
*overall shape (folding) of protein* |
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Interactions causing tertiary structure
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-electrostatic interactions (ionic bonds)
-van der waals forces -hydrogen bonds -covalent bonds (disulfide bridge) |
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Quaternary protein structure
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formation of proteins with more than one polypeptide (2 or more chains/subunits) linked by disulfide bonds
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glycoproteins
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contains sugar units, i.e. FSH
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lipoproteins
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contains lipids, i.e. LDL, HDL
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Nucleic acids/nucleotides
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Functions: storage, expression, and transmission of genetic info
basic subunit = nucleotide = sugar + phosphate + nitrogenous base |
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Purines (double rings)
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A and G
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Pyrimidines (single ring)
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C, T, and U
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ATP and ADP
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-high energy phosphate bonds
-major molecules for transferring energy -muscle contraction -active transport across membranes -synth. of organic molecules |
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what are cAMP and cGMP?
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messengers
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what are NAD and FAD?
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other energy-transferring nucleotides
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A-T or A-U
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two H-bonds
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G-C
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three H-bonds
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