Physiology Test 1

Front 1

Nucleolus

Back 1

Synthesis of rRNA and partially assembly of ribosomal subunit; involved in cell cycle regulation.

Pathology: Werner syndrome (premature aging), malfunctions of cell cycle leading to cancerogenesis

Front 2

Plasma Membrane

Back 2

Ion and nutrient transport; recognition of extracellular signals; cell-to-cell and cell-to-extracellular matrix adhesions

Pathology: cystic fibrosis, intestinal malabsorption syndromes, lactose intolerance

Front 3

rER

Back 3

Binds ribosomes engaged in translating mRNA for proteins destined for secretion or for membrane insertion; also involved in chemical modifications of proteins and membrane lipid synthesis.

Pathology: pseudoachondroplasia, calcium phosphate dehydrate crystal deposition disease

Front 4

sER

Back 4

Involved in lipid and steroid metabolism.

Pathology: hepatic endoplasmic reticular storage disease

Front 5

Golgi apparatus

Back 5

Chemical modification of proteins; sorting and packaging of molecules for secretion or transport to other organelles.

Pathology: I-cell disease, polycystic kidney disease

Front 6

Secretory vessels

Back 6

Transport and storage of secreted proteins to PM.

Pathology: Lewy bodies of Parkinson's disease, proinsulin diabetes

Front 7

Mitochondria

Back 7

Aerobic energy supply (oxidative phosphorylation, ATP); initiation of apoptosis.

Pathology: mitochondrial myopathies such as MERRF^a, MELAS^b, Kearns-Sayre syndromes, and Leber's hereditary optic atrophy

Front 8

Endosomes

Back 8

Transport of endocytosed material; biogenesis of lysosomes.

Pathology: M-6-P receptor deficiency

Front 9

Lysosomes

Back 9

Digestion of macromolecules.

Pathology: lysosomal storage disease

Front 10

Peroxisomes

Back 10

Oxidative digestion (ex: fatty acids)

Pathology: Zellweger's syndrome

Front 11

Cytoskeletal Elements

Back 11

Various functions including cell motility, cell adhesions, intracellular and extracellular transport; maintenance of cellular skeleton.

Pathology: Immotile cilia syndrome, Alzheimer's disease, epidermolysis bullosa

Front 12

Ribosomes

Back 12

Synthesis of protein by translating protein-coding sequence from mRNA.

Pathology: Many antibiotics act selectively on bacterial ribosomes, ex: tetracyclines, aminoglycosides (gentamicin, streptomycin)

Front 13

Glycogen

Back 13

Short-term storage of glucose in the form of a branched polymer; found in liver, skeletal muscle, and adipose tissue.

Pathology: several known glycogen storage diseases, including major groups of hepatic+hypoglycemic and muscle-energy pathophysiologies.

Front 14

Lipid droplets

Back 14

Storage of esterified forms of fatty acids as high-energy storage molecules.

Pathology: lipid storage disease such as Gaucher's and Niemann-Pick disease, liver cirrhosis.

Front 15

Actin Filaments (Microfilaments, MF):

Relative size (& diameter)

Shape

Cell type

Basic protein subunit

Functions

Back 15

Smallest (6-8nm); double stranded linear helical array; present in virtually all cells; monomer (globular) =G-Actin (assembles to form F-actin (filament polymer); support PM, cell movement, anchorage and movement of membrane proteins, provide essential components to contractile elements of muscle cells (sarcomeres)

Front 16

Intermediate Filaments (IF) :

Relative size (& diameter)

Shape

Cell type

Basic protein subunit

Functions

Back 16

Middle (8-10nm); rope-like fibers; shows diversity and tissue specifity; various intermediate filament proteins. Depends on cell type (ex: keratins = epithelial cell, desmin=muscle cell,vimentin=mesenchymal cells, neurofilaments=neurons, lamin=skeletal elements of the nucleus; ORGANELLE-SPECIFIC); support PM, cell shape (supporting or general structure role); provide mechanical strength and resistance to shearing forces.

Front 17

Microtubules (MT) :
Relative size (& diameter)
Shape

Cell type
Basic protein subunit
Functions

Back 17

Largest(20-25nm); nonbranching long hollow cylinders; present in virtually all cells; monomer=tubulin; provides "railroad tracks" for organelle movement, provide movement for cilia and for chromosomes during cell division.

Front 18

Human Development Timeline

1) When is the embryological period?

2) What are the 4 periods of embryological period?

3) When is the Fetal Period?
*Birth = parturition

Back 18

1) (week 0-8)

2) Week 1: Fertilization->Morulation-> Blastogenesis & Implantation
Week 2: Bilaminar Disk Formation
Week 3: Gastrulation
Week 4-8: Organogenetic Period

3) Weeks 9-38.

Front 19

1) What are the 4 basic tissue types?

Back 19

1) -Muscle: Uses energy in the form of ATP to generate force and/or contract

-Nervous: Carries info; conducts electric impulses (action potentials, receptor potentials)

-Epithelial tissue: Always found at boundary b/t internal and external environment; forms sheets that line internal passageways; covers exposed surfaces produces secretions; endothelium is a type of epithelium that is the innermost lining of blood vessels.

-Connective Tissue: Fills internal spaces, provides structural support (often called stroma), stores energy as fat; connects other cell types to another.

Front 20

1) What are the steps of Week 1 during the embryological period?

2) ... Week 2?

3) ... Week 3?

*Selective gene expression controls essential processes by which embro is constructed.

Back 20

1) Zygote -> Morula -> blastocyst -> Inner cell mass (embryoblast -> Bilaminar) OR Outer Cell mass (trophoblast)

2) Bilaminar Disk -> Epiblast (leads to Trilaminar disk) OR hypoblast

3) Trilaminar disk -> ectoderm OR mesoderm OR endoderm

Front 21

1) What are Inducer Group cells?
-What do they use for communication?

2) What are Responder group cells?

3) What is inductive signaling?

Back 21

1) The cells that generate inductive signals. Cell-to-cell communication via juxtracrine or paracrine pathways.

2) Cell groups that successfully respond to inductive signals & become committed to a new development lineage.

3) Creates orderly differences & is one mechanism by which a signal from cells outside the initially homogenous group lead to diversity in gene expression & cell type.

Front 22

1) What do juxtacrine factors involve?

2) What is apoptosis?
-As important as cell proliferation & differentiation.
-Eliminates transitory tissues.

Back 22

1) Ligand-receptor interactions b/t 2 cells or b/t a cell & its surrounding ECM.

2) A normal & necessary process of programmed cell death that occurs both during development & in maintenance of adult-size organs/tissues.
-Dying/dead cell is phagocytized by local macrophages and its molecules are catabolized and recycled.

Front 23

1) What is syndactyly?

2) What is necrosis?

3) What are the characteristics of apoptosis?

Back 23

1) The fusion of digits due to incomplete apoptosis.

2) Cell injury causes irreversibly pathological decay & death of cells.

3) Cell volume shrinkage due to dehydration, nuclear & cytoplasmic condensation, cleavage of DNA.

Front 24

1) Define potency.

2) Totipotent

3) Examples of totipotent cells?

Back 24

1) The potential of an undifferentiated cell to reprogram & become a specialized cell type.

2) Posses potential to differentiate into absolutely ANY embryonic or extraembryonic cell type. Can from an entire new organism de novo.

3) Human zygote & the identical daughter eclls it becomes prior to morula stage.

Front 25

1) Pluripotent

2) Where are pluripotent cells found?

2) What type of potency are the cells of the morula, embryoblast or trophoblast?

Back 25

1) Primordial cells derived from a totipotent cell (ex: zygote) that may continue to differentiate into a myriad of specialized cell types & tissue types in the embryo.

2) The inner cell mast (embryoblast) or outer cell mast (trophoblast) of the blastocyst.

3) pluripotent

Front 26

1) Multipotent

2) Where are multipotent cells found?

Back 26

1) Pluripotent cells become multipotent after the 3 germ layers are formed in gastrulation.

2) The embryonic gastrula & the process of gastrulation results in a restriction of the types of tissues the cells can become.

Front 27

1) Define Oligopotent

2) What is the potency series?

Back 27

1) In some tissues there are cell populations that have less potency than multipotent cells & can only become a few different cell types.

2) Totipotent -> Pluripotent -> Multipotent -> Oligopotent

Front 28

1) Where does the epiblast come from and what does it give rise to?

2) When does the primitive streak appear?

3) What is the primitive streak?

Back 28

1) Comes from embryoblast as a part of the bilayer laminar. It gives rise to gastrulation (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm).

2) At the beginning of gastrulation (Trilaminar disk formation)

3) A midline thickening of epiblast cells (hypertrophy & hyperplasia). Initiates at caudal end -> Cranial. Produces signaling molecules involved w/ induction of adjacent cells.

Front 29

1) What is the primitive node?

2) What is the primitive pit?

3)

Back 29

1) Elevated region around the cranial end of the primitive streak; organizer of important process like laterality and formation of notochord.

2) A depression in the primitive node.

3)

Front 30

1) What is gastrulation-migration and invagination of cells?

2) What happens to the cell that do not migrate and invaginate?

3) What displaces the hypoblast cells?

Back 30

1) A fraction of epiblast cells near midline migrate toward Primitive Streak (PS). They slip beneath epiblast layer, lose cell adhesions and migrate to various locations.

2) They form the embryonic ectoderm.

3) The post-invagination epiblast cells that create the embryonic endoderm.
-The cells b/t the ectoderm and nascent endoderm become the mesoderm layer.

Front 31

1) What is Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT)?

2) When does neurulation begin?

Back 31

1) The process by which epithelial-like cells lose their adhesions and migrate (AKA invagination).
-Also found in wound healing, initial stages of cancer metastases and neural tube formation.

2) During week 3, gastrulation.1

Front 32

1) What tissues does the ectoderm layer give rise to?

2) Mesoderm?

3) Endoderm?

Back 32

1) Muscle tissue & CT (some head regions in both), nervous tissue, epithelial tissue.

2) Muscle tissue, CT, epithelial tissue

3) Epithelial tissue.

Front 33

1) What three things does the ectoderm differentiate into?

2) What do these 3 layers give rise to?

Back 33

1) Neuroectoderm Neural tube & Neural crest OR Surface ectoderm

1) Neural tube: (CNS, retina, posterior pituitary, pineal bod)
-Neural crest: Melanocytes
-Surface ectoderm: epidermis of skin and appendages covering entire body, hair, nails, sweat glands, mammary glands), anterior pituitary gland, cornea, lens of eye

Front 34

1) What does the endothelium become?

2) What 3 layers does the embryonic mesoderm become?

Back 34

1) Epithelial lining and epithelial cells of respiratory tract, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, urinary bladder, GI tract, acessory digestive organs (pancreas & liver), Epithelial cells of parathyroid glands, thyroid gland, thyumus, tonsils.

2) Paraxial, intermediate and lateral plate mesoderms.

Front 35

1) What is the paraxial mesoderm?

2) What does the paraxial mesoderm differentiate into?

Back 35

2)

1) 1st mesoderm migration from PS; becomes bilateral segmentally arranged somites.

2) Differentiates into SM of trunk & head; CT (ex: bone) of trunk and portions of skull; dermis of skin (CT layer of skin subjacent to epidermis).

Front 36

1) What is the intermediate mesoderm?

2) What does it differentiate into?

Back 36

1) 2nd mesoderm migration wave from PS; compared to paraxial mesoderm, originates more posterior and migrates laterally.

2) Differentiates into urogenital system (kidneys, reters, bladder) & stroma of the gonads (testis, ovaries).

Front 37

1) What is the Lateral (Plate) Mesoderm?

2) What & When does it differentiate into?

Back 37

1) 3rd & last migration wave from PS; most caudal of the 3 mesodermal layers and migrates most laterally.

2) Parietal & visceral mesoderm layers at end of week 3.

Front 38

1) Where is the parietal (somatic) layer of the lateral mesoderm?

2) What does it differentiate into?

-GSA can localize pain.

Back 38

1) Deep to embryonic surface ectoderm.

2) The parietal mesothelial inner lining of future ventral body cavity (parietal pleura, parietal pericardium, parietal peritoneum); Also becomes SM, bone, CT & dermis of limbs.
-Parietal & paraxial layers are continuous, so segmental plane of dermatomes extens into limbs.

Front 39

1) Where is the visceral (splanchnic) layer of the lateral mesoderm?
2) What does it differentiate into?
-GVE cannot localize pain.

Back 39

1) Superficial to emryonic endoderm.
2) Visceral mesothelium (AKA serosa) outer lining of gut tube & derived structures (visceral pleura, pericardium & peritoneum); CT stroma, smooth muscle & vasculature of wall of gut tube; heart, blood vasculature, lymph vasculature, spleen.

Front 40

1) What is mesenchyme?

- what is their potency?
2) What becomes mesenchyme?

Back 40

1) loosely organized embryonic CT; group of multipotent cells that "stake out" different regions & internal volumes of the embryo.
2) Some mesodermal cells becomes mesenchyme

Front 41

1) What is neurulation
2) What is the neural plate and how is it formed?
3) What is the neural groove?
4) Neural folds?

Back 41

1) The process where neural plate forms neural tube.
2) Paracrine signaling from notochord causes overlying ectoderm on dorsal side to form an elongated thickened plate of cells.
3) A depress b/t the midline invagination of the neural plate
4) L/R ridges of the neural groove. 1st stafe of brain development seen in animal experiments.

Front 42

1) What are somites?

2) What are sclerotomes?

Back 42

1) Cuboidal blocks of paraxial mesoderm that develop bilaterally relative to notochord & neural tube. Formed at same time as neural tube, notochord (3+ week)
-give rise to the vertebrae of the spine, rib cage, (and part of the occipital bone); skeletal muscle, cartilage, tendons, and skin

2) Tendon, cartilage, bone components of axial skeleton. vertebrae and the rib cartilage and part of the occipital bone

Front 43

3) Myotomes?
-And the 2 types of myotomes?

4) Dermatomes?

-3 & 4 together are called dermomyotomes.

Back 43

3) Axial skeletal muscle components.
-Epaxial myotomes-deep back muscles, segmentally innervated by posterior primary rami.
-Hypaxial myotomes-anterior-lateral body wall, segmentally innervated by anterior primary rami.

4) Dermis of the skin overlying the vertebra & trunk muscles.
-Segmented & supplied by SN derived from neural crest cells.

Front 44

1) Tissues derived from somites become what 2 kinds of nerves?

2) Sclerotomes & dermomyotomes develop from which cell?

Back 44

1) GSEs & GSAs of the somatic nervous system division of the peripheral nervous system.

2) Somite cells.

Front 45

1) What is the coelom structure?

2) What holds the "tube-on-top-of-a-tube" together?

Back 45

1) The structure formed at the end of the 3rd week when the folding & curving of the embryo cause the neural tube to close dorsally & gut tube to close ventrally forming the "Tube on top of a tube".

2) Mesoderm. Visceral layer of lateral plate remains associated w/ gut tube. Parietal layer of the lateral plate together w/ ectoderm form the lateral body wall folds.

Front 46

1) What is the gut tube?

2) What does the gut tube differentiate into?

Back 46

1) The tube within a tube development. We develop a central gut tube that is 'inside' of our outer tube which is the body wall (trunk).

2) Inferior pharynx, esophagus, stomach & intestines.

Front 47

1) What does the respiratory system develop from?

2) What does the liver & pancreas develop from?

Back 47

1) An out pouching of the gut tube.

2) Endodermal outgrowths of the gut tube.

Front 48

1) When do upper & lower limbs emerge?

2) What do limb buds consist of?

*Initial limb development places it true anatomic position before the palms become directed medially, soles inferiorly, & the lower limb limbs begin to twist, resulting in a barber-shop pole pattern of dermomyotomes.

Back 48

1) Emery from anterior-lateral trunk at beginning of week 4, followed a few days later by emergency of lower limb buds.

2) Mesenchyme core surrounded by parietal (somatic) layer of lateral plate mesoderm.
-Eventually differentiates into cartilage models that eventually ossifies into limb bones.

Front 49

1) What largely controls the establishment of structures along the antero-posterior axis (segmental body plan)?

2) What is a stem cell?
-Adult stem cells are sometimes called SOMATIC STEM CELLS.

Back 49

1) Homeobox (Hox) genes.

2) An undifferentiated cell that can continue dividing indefinitely.
-Capable of maintaining its own # & presence in a tissue while differentiating into daughter cell progeny of other cell types and lineages.

Front 50

1) What are embryonic stem cells?

2) Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)?

Back 50

1) Harvested from the inner mass cell of the morula or early blastocyst (early embryoblast). PLURIPOTENT (much more potential than adult stem cells).

2) Adult cells that have been genetically reprogrammed to an embryonic stem cell-like state by being forced to express genes & factors important for maintaining the defining properties of embryonic stem cells (pluripotent).

Front 51

1) What are amniotic stem cells?

2) How is the equilibrium in the number of cells maintained?

Back 51

1) Multipotential stem cells from embryonic mesenchyme isolated from amnionic fluid & have fewer ethical issues than embryonic stem cell isolation.
-Can differentiate into precursors for nerve, muscle, skin, heart, cartilage & bone.

2) Between the 'input' of differentiation of stem cells and 'output' of programmed cell death (apoptosis).

Front 52

Proliferate Activity of Cell Populations in Tissue

1) Continuously Dividing Cell
-Chemo disrupts normal stem cell populations since they disrupt mitosis in rapidly dividing cell population of cancers.

2) "Permanent" Cells

Back 52

1) Epithelial layers (Skin, mucosae), bone marrow cells (RBC, WBC). High cell cycle rate; stem cells differentiate continuously for new supply.

2) CNS neurons, skeletal m. fibers, cardiac m. fibers. Cells exit cell cycle = no routine replication/replacement. Stem sells not well characterized or found.

Front 53

Proliferate Activity of Cell Populations in Tissue


1) Quiescent Cells

Back 53

1) Liver, kidney, pancreas, smooth m. fibers, fibroblasts, endothelium, 'resting' lymphocytes. low cell cycle rate = low replication/replacement rate. Stem Cells differentiate in compensatory reconstruction of tissue or scar formation via fibroblast stem cells.

Front 54

1) What is the stem cell niche tissue?

2) What are examples of stem cell niches?

Back 54

1) A microenvironment that helps maintain a competent stem cell population while protecting host tissue from overactive stem cells (ex: during cancer or chronic inflammation processes).
-Functional unit capable of responding to changing EC conditions or injury in a controlled function.

2) Hair follicle bulge in epidermis, crypt cells in intestinal mucosa, basal region of tracheal mucosa, BM cavity of long bones (RBC, WBC), bile ductiles in the liver.

Front 55

1) What 2 basic properties do adult stem cells have?

2) What is a Transit Amplifying Cell (TAC)?

Back 55

1)-Self Renewal: Gives rise to many daughters but keeps subset of cells in undifferentiated (higher potential) state as stem cell.
-Multipotency: They form more differentiated, lower potency types of daughter cells.

2) A pool of stem cell derivatives which are commited along a specific development linage; not found in all tissues.

Front 56

1) Compare TAC to stem cells.

2) What happens to adult stem cells as we age?

Back 56

1) TACs = less potent, can rapidly divide to form MUCH larger pool of cells that can differentiate. More likely to undergo terminal differentiate & lower capacity for self-renewal.

2) The function declines.

Front 57

1) What are cancer stem cells (CSCs)?

2) What % is water of body weight in men and women?

Back 57

1) Cells w/i a tumor that possess capacity to self-renew & give rise to heterogenous cell lineages of cancer cells that comprise a tumor.
-A Subset of cancer cells thought to responsible for tumor growth, therapy resistance and metastasis.

2) men = 60%, women = 50%

Front 58

1) What are exocrine glands?

2) What is the breakdown of the total body fluid b/t ICF & ECF?

3) What is the breakdown of ECF?

1) How much of the total body fluid is ISF?

Back 58

1) Epithelial glands that dump their secretions on the outside of the body.

2) ICF (2/3) + ECF (1/3)

3) ISF (3/4) + Plasma (1/4 or 1/12 of total body fluid) + Lymph + Transcellular fluid (too small)

4) 1/4

Front 59

1) What is the breakdown of blood and their sub elements?
2) What is the hematocrit?
3) What are the hematocrit values for men & women?
4) What is normal glucose value for adults?

Back 59

1) BLOOD = Plasma + Formed Elements
-Formed Elements = WBC + RBC + Platelet
2) Fraction of cells in blood.
3) Men: 41-53%, Women: 36-46%
4) 70-110 mg/dL (measured in serum)

Front 60

1) What cations are most present in the ICF & ECF? What about Cl-?

2) Compare the pH of ECF to ICF.

3) How is the composition of ISF & Plasma?

Back 60

1) K+ = ICF (140 vs. 4.5 for ECF)
Na+ = ECF (140 vs 10 for ICF)
*Cl-= ECF (100 vs. 10 for ICF)

2) pH is lower (7.0) in ICF compared to ECF (7.4).

3) Very similar except ISF has fewer proteins than plasma.

Front 61

What is the resolution of...

1) Unaided eye?

2) Light microscope?
-LM are compound microscopes.

3)Electron microscope?

Back 61

1) ~0.2 mm

2) ~0.2 micrometer

3) 1 nanometer.

Front 62

1) What can & can't you see with a LM?

2) With an EM?

3) Are lipids visible with LM?

Back 62

1) Can: Most organelles and smallest bacteria.
Can't: viruses, DNA, proteins, small molecules or atoms.

2) Can: Viruses, DNA & Protein molecules
Can't: Small molecules or atoms.

3) No. Solvents (H&E = organic) dissolve lipids.

Front 63

1) How do short chain fatty acids & a high degree of unsaturation affect fluidity?

2) What is cholesterol's role in fluidity?

Back 63

1) It enhances fluidity b/c they provide for LESS-ORDERED interactions.

2) Major determinant of fluidity.
Low concentration = enhances fluidity by fitting b/t chains and preventing crystallization.
-High conc. = decreases fluidity by blocking segmental (Wagging) motion.

Front 64

1) What is sphingomyelin?

2) What are glycolipids?

Back 64

1) Forms myelin sheath of Swann cells. Composed of sphingomyelin backchain, fatty acid & phosphorylcholine.

2) Sugar-containing lipids (ex: blood group antigens of ABO system).

Front 65

1) Draw general structure of phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids, cholesterol. Nomenclature, too.

Front 66

1) Explain the layers of the nuclear envelope.

Back 66

1) 2 parallel unit membranes.
-Inner nuclear membrane: Supported by lamins (IF)
-Perinuclear cisterna: Space b/t inner & outer nuclear membranes; continuous w/ lumen of ER.
-Outer nuclear membrane: Continous w/ ER (both may have ribosomes bound)

Front 67

1) Explain the 2 pathways of exocytosis

Back 67

1) - Constitutive: Substances for export continuously delivered to PM. Proteins are secreted immediately after synthesis (ex: immunoglobulins from plasma cells)
-Regulated: Occurs in specialized cells (endocrine, exocrine, neurons). transiently stores "export cargo". Requires regulatory event for secretion to occur.

Front 68

1) Explain the endomembrane pathway?

2) What is anterograde & retrograde endomembrane?

Back 68

1) Transfer of protein/molecules b/t compartments bounded by membranes w/i the cell.

2) Antero: ER -> Golgi (COPII)
Retro: Golgi -> ER (COPI)

Front 69

1) What are SNAREs (Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion protein Accessory protein Receptor)?

2) What are V- & T-SNAREs?

Back 69

1) Proteins that facilitate docking of endomembrane pathways.

2) V-SNAREs are on vesicle and dock with the complimentary receptor T-SNARE located on the target membrane.

Front 70

1) What role does clathrin play in endocytosis?

2) In freeze-fracture EM, which side are integral proteins more numerous?

Back 70

1) It is the ligand for ligand-receptor complexes. It gathers at the coated pits to form a coat around the vesicle.

2) The P (protoplasmic) side.