Physiology 3420 Final Review Part 1

Front 1

define Hydrophilic

Back 1

dissolves readily in water, water loving

Front 2

define Hydrophobic

Back 2

not dissolving readily in water, lipid soluable

Front 3

define amphipathic

Back 3

a molecule that consists of a polar and nonpolar subpart ; loves water at one end and loves oil at another

Front 4

define a biomembrane

Back 4

a barrier between the interior of the cell and
external environment
.
Its composition - mostly lipids & proteins

Front 5

describe the phospholipid

Back 5

composed of a polar head and a non polar tail

Front 6

describe the cellular membrane

Back 6

a lipid bilayer composed of repeating phospholipids

Front 7

define a integral membrane protein

Back 7

an integral membrane protein, or transmembrane protein, spans the whole lipid bilayer and can't be removed without taking the bilayer apart

Front 8

define peripheral membrane protein

Back 8

a peripheral protein is one that can be removed without taking the membrane apart. it is located on one side of the cell membrane and weakly bonded.

Front 9

define paracrine signaling

Back 9

a local acting form of secretion that only binds to neighboring cellular receptors to have an regulatory effect

Front 10

define neurotransmitter secretion

Back 10

when an electrical signal reaches the synapse of the neurosecretory cell, it releases a neurohormone which acts on cellular receptors

Front 11

define hormonal secretion

Back 11

when an endocrine cell secretes a hormone into the blood that only acts on distant target cells which have the receptor for that hormone

Front 12

define gap junction signaling

Back 12

direct cell to cell communication between connexon channels, which allow small ions and electrical signals to be sent to a neighboring cell

Front 13

what four factors can change membrane fluidity?

Back 13

Temperature
Unsaturated fat content
Saturated fat content
Cholesterol content

Front 14

a membrane with high unsaturated fatty acids will have more or less fluidity?

Back 14

more fluidity

Front 15

how does temperature increase the fluidity of the bilayer?

Back 15

increased temperature makes the membrane more fluid

Front 16

how can a colder temperature be offset by an animals bilayer?

Back 16

anartic fishes use unsaturated fats to avoid freezing since they're solid at colder temps and liquid at room temp

Front 17

how does cholesterol affect the membrane?

Back 17

cholesterol make the membrane more fluid at colder temperatures

Front 18

what are the four types of cellular signaling?

Back 18

ligand-gated channels
G protein-coupled receptors
Enzyme/enzyme-linked receptors
Intracellular receptors

Front 19

describe how ligand-gated channels work and where they might be used.

Back 19

ligand-gated channels act as receptors and channels. once bound to their ligand, the channel opens to allow ions to flow through and alter an electric potential of the membrane.
found in neurons

Front 20

describe how g-protein coupled receptors work and where they might be used.

Back 20

a ligand binds to a g-protein coupled receptor which then activates a g-protein to activate an enzyme. this ezyme then produces cAMP or an intracellular secondary messenger

Front 21

what is the difference between g-protein receptors and ligand-gated receptors?

Back 21

in g-protein signaling, absolutely no sort of chemical passes through the membrane, whereas in ligand-gated receptors ions and small molecules do

Front 22

how does an enzyme/enzyme receptor work?

Back 22

a ligand binds to the receptor on the outside of the cell , which activates a catlytic site on the same molecule to release cGMP ( a secondary messenger) into the cytoplasm

Front 23

how does an enzyme/enzyme receptor differ from a g-protein receptor and a ligand-gated receptor?

Back 23

an enzyme/enzyme receptor has nothing pass through the membrane, same as g-protein receptors, and unlike ligand-gated receptors. It differes from g-protein receptors since the protein activates itself to release a secondary messenger cGMP, rather than a secondary protein

Front 24

how does an intracellular receptor work?

Back 24

a small hydrophobic molecule passes through the membrane, to bind an intracellular receptor in the nucleus. this new ligand-receptor complex acts as a transcription factor to affect genetic expression

Front 25

name two g-protein secondary messengers

Back 25

cAMP--> phosphorylation of proteins
IP3--> activation og ligand-gated sarcoplasmic reticulum ca2+ channels

Front 26

name a ligand-gated secondary messenger

Back 26

ca2+ released form the sarcoplasmic reticulum

Front 27

name an enzyme/enzyme-linked secondary messenger

Back 27

cGMP --> phosphorylation of proteins

Front 28

name an intracellular secondary messenger

Back 28

primary messenger( nitric oxide) activates receptor----> secondary messenger( cGMP)
NO-cGMP = secondary messenger

Front 29

how are intracellular levels of secondary messengers increased??

Back 29

think about how epinephrine can cause a hge signal cascade.
a g-protein mediated receptor produces multiple copies of a secondary messenger to continue through the pathway, thus amplifying the resulting product.

Front 30

define energy

Back 30

the capacity to do work
(e.g. chemical, transport
& mechanical work)

Front 31

what three forms of energy can animals use?

Back 31

chemical,
electrical
and mechanical

Front 32

what types of energy do animals use/produce?

Back 32

Chemical by reconfiguring atoms in food molecules
electrical by separating positive and negative charges
mechanical energy

Front 33

what do animals need energy for??

Back 33

for biosynthesis
maintenance ( circulation, respiration)
generation of mechanical work ( walking and muscle contraction)

Front 34

what is the first law of thermodynamics??

Back 34

energy is neither created or lost in the universe

Front 35

what is the second law of thermodynamics?

Back 35

'(' entropy ')' all energy in the universie will eventually degrade to heat and all matter will become totally randomized

Front 36

what for of energy can animals not use?

Back 36

heat energy

Front 37

define entropy ▲S

Back 37

entropy(▲S) is the randomized energy of the system. it is also the degree to which matter is more randomized

Front 38

what is the gibbs free energy equation?

Back 38

∆G = ∆Gº + (RT)•ln ([C][D]/[A][B])
where R=1.98 10^-3
t=temperature in kelvin

Front 39

what is (∆Gº) Gibbs free energy change equation?

Back 39

∆Gº = -2.3RT•log (K’eq)

Front 40

what is the difference between steady state and the equilibrium of a chemical reaction?

Back 40

both assume the concentration doesnt change but in chemical equilibrium products change to reactants at the same rate that reactants change to products. In stead state equilibrium most of the variable remain constant.

Front 41

what are physiological roles of enzymes?

Back 41

they lower the activation energy and increase the reaction velocity

Front 42

what is activation energy?

Back 42

the energy required to achieve transition state

Front 43

what four things can affect an enzyme?

Back 43

specificity
temperature
ph
allosteric modulation

Front 44

where does the substrate bind an enzyme?

Back 44

at the active site

Front 45

why can the leopard frog hop faster than a western toad?

Back 45

the leopard frog has more LDH and can make more atp anaerobically than the western frog

Front 46

how does enzyme concentration relate to reaction velocity?

Back 46

each enzyme has its own catalytic efficiency that can not be increased. more enzyme means more product produced.

Front 47

Name two ways enzymes can be regulated.

Back 47

allosteric regulation
enzyme synthesis degredation

Front 48

what is allosteric regulation?

Back 48

an allosteric modifier controls the rate of end-product formation

Front 49

what is ATP?

Back 49

a high energy metabolite for the cell

Front 50

what is a uncoupled reaction?

Back 50

a reaction that opposes ATP by allowing electrons from the ETC to pass through the membrane but no energy is converted into ATP. Instead the energy is converted immediately to heat.

Front 51

what is the P/O ratio??

Back 51

the amount of ATP molecules made per atom of o2 reduced to water

Front 52

what does it mean if a reaction is fully coupled??

Back 52

all electrons passing through the membrane are used to make atp by passing through atp-ase

Front 53

what is coupling?

Back 53

the linkage of the ETC with oxidative phophorylation

Front 54

why is oxygen the final electron acceptor while NAD+ and FAD+ are not?

Back 54

FAD+ and NAD+ exist in limited quantities in cells , whereas oxygen is readily abundant in aerobic metabolism

Front 55

define oxidative phosphorylation

Back 55

the process of forming ATP from ADP by use of energy released in the transport of electrons through the electron-transport chain

Front 56

what are the steps of the ETC?

Back 56

the chaintakes an H from NADH and adds it to NAD in the NADH complex
passes it to FADh then eventually to cytochrome oxidase passing electrons to o2, reducing the o2 to water

Front 57

how much ATP is made in aerobic metabolism?

Back 57

aerobic metabolism can produce 38 ATP per glucose

Front 58

how much ATP is made in anaerobic metabolism?

Back 58

anaerobic metabolism is capable of producing 2ATP per glucose

Front 59

how to find the efficiency of aerobic metabolism?

Back 59

▲Gº - HeatE = Net ATP (kcal/mol)

Front 60

what are the four type of aerobic metabolism?

Back 60

(1) Glycolysis,
(2) Krebs cycle
(3) Electron transport chain
(4) oxidative phosphorylation

Front 61

for every one glucose, how many molecules of what are produced in the krebs cycle?

Back 61

8 NADH2, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP

Front 62

for every one glucose, how many molecules of what are made in glycolysis?

Back 62

2 NADH2, 2 Pyruvate and 2 ATP

Front 63

what is the purpose of the electron transport chain?

Back 63

the purpose is to pass along electrons from NADh2 and FADH2 to O2 as the final electron acceptor. This puts prtons into the inter membrane space that will be used in oxidative phosphorylation to produce atp

Front 64

what is oxidative phosphorylation?

Back 64

the production of ATP by ATP-synthase, which takes the protons pumped into the inner membrane space via ETC and relieves the gradient by passing protons through ATP-synthase into the matrix to produce ATP

Front 65

how many molecules of ATP are gained by the linking the four ways to produce energy?

Back 65

31 molecules of atp

Front 66

what is the principle Anaerobic means of making atp?

Back 66

Glycolysis , which also entails part using substrate level phosphorylation , to produce 2 molecules of ATP per glucose metabolized

Front 67

define Thermoregulation

Back 67

the maintenance of a relatively constant tissue temperature.

Front 68

When is an animal an endotherm?

Back 68

An animal exhibits endothermy if its tissues are warmed by its metabolic production of heat.

Front 69

when is an animal an ectotherm?

Back 69

an nimal exhibits ecothermy when it relies on outside temperature to determine their body temperature

Front 70

Define Poikilothermy

Back 70

IS the same as ectothermy, meaning variable body temperature

Front 71

define hemeothermy

Back 71

an animal that thermoregulates by physiological production of heat.

Front 72

define thermal variation

Back 72

an animal that varies its body temperatures at different times of the year

Front 73

define spatial variation

Back 73

varying thermal relations from one region of an animals body to another

Front 74

define temporal heterothermy

Back 74

temporal heterothermy is the variation in thermal relations from one time to another

Front 75

define spatial heterothermy

Back 75

spatial heterothermy is the variation in body temperature from one region of the body to another

Front 76

what are the two types of poikilotherms?

Back 76

behavioral thermoregulators and nonthermoregulating poikilotherms

Front 77

what are the two types of endothermy?

Back 77

non-thermoregulating endotherms and homeotherms.

Front 78

define convection

Back 78

as air or water pass over an object the remove thermal energy. the rate at which this energy is removed depends on the difference in temperature between the object and fluid

Front 79

define conduction

Back 79

the transfer of thermal energy from one solid to another, depending on the difference in temperature of the thickness

Front 80

how does evaporation remove heat energy?

Back 80

as water changes from a liquid to a gas it absorbs a substantial amount of heat energy, which is carried of the skin

Front 81

define thermal radiation

Back 81

the transfer of thermal energy between all objects. thermal energy moves from high to low.

Front 82

what is the Q10?

Back 82

a relation between how much the metabolism is increased by increasing the body temperature

Front 83

what is acclimation?

Back 83

the change in an animals metabolism-temperature relation when it is kept chronically at one body temp for a period of time then at a different body temp for the same amount of time.

Front 84

what is acclimatization?

Back 84

the change in an animals metablosim-temperature relation when it is acclimated to one temperature and then suddenly switched to another temperature

Front 85

why would a change in temperature affect the function of the animal?

Back 85

the change in temperature would affect the molecular conformation of the animals proteins which would then alter their function

Front 86

how do you measure the Q10?

Back 86

you take the metabolic rate at any given temperature and divide that by the metabolic rate at ten degrees less.

Front 87

what does the size of the Q10 tell you??

Back 87

the larger the Q10, of an increase in temperature, the higher the change in metabolic rate

Front 88

what happens molecularly for an animals Q10 to change when acclimated to the cold?

Back 88

1) a change in enzyme activity
2) a change in enzyme concentration
3) a change in both

Front 89

what are three advantages of ectothermy?

Back 89

1) multiple Tb setpoints
2) lower metabolic rate, thus lower energy consumption needs
3) more energy can be devoted to growth

Front 90

what are three advantages of endothermy??

Back 90

1) a higher metabolic rate means higher activity possible
2) more efficient/abundant enzyme activity
3)usually one tb setpoint

Front 91

define supercooling

Back 91

when a liquid is at a temperature below its freezing point but still remains liquid. this has a greater chance of instantly freezing as it reaches its supercooling point

Front 92

define supercooling point

Back 92

the temperature at which the likelihood of freezing becomes so great that the solution spontaneously freezes rapidly.

Front 93

what are the two types of antifreeze compounds?

Back 93

colligative and noncolligative

Front 94

what are colligative antifreeze compounds?

Back 94

compounds that lower the freezing point by increasing the amount of total dissovled solids in solution, such as glycerol, mannitol and sorbitol

Front 95

what are noncolligative antifreeze compounds?

Back 95

compounds that lower the freezing point of the body fluids because of the specialized chemical properties.

Front 96

what are antifreeze proteins in an animal?

Back 96

proteins that act as noncolligative antifreezes

Front 97

define membrane fluidity

Back 97

a measure of how the phospholipid molecules in a membrane move

Front 98

when does membrane fluidity increase?

Back 98

membrane fluidity increases as the temperature and degree of unsaturation increases.

Front 99

define ice-nucleating agents

Back 99

dissolved or undissolved substances that act as the foci for the initiation of freezing.

Front 100

how does an animal supercool itself??

Back 100

an animal that removes most, if not all, of its supercooling agents can lower its freezing point to substantially lower temperatures without causing intracellular freezing.

Front 101

how can counter current exchange help an animal retain its heat in colder climates?

Back 101

certain animals allow their extremities to be cooler than their core body temp, regional heterothermy. as the blood leaves the core it gets cooler, the heat from the arteries transfer to the veins and heat the venous blood as it returns to the core. thus conserving on heat

Front 102

define the thermoneutral zone

Back 102

the range of temperatures in which an animals resting metabolism is independent of ambient temperature and is constant.

Front 103

what is an upper and lower critical temperature?

Back 103

the lower critical temperature is the lowest temperature of the thermoneutral zone and the upper is the highest.

Front 104

Define BMR

Back 104

the basal metabolic rate is the metabolic rate when an animal is resting or fasting in its thermoneutral zone.

Front 105

define shivering thermogenesis

Back 105

using muscle activity to generate heat

Front 106

define the hypothalmus

Back 106

a central temperature sensor as well as integration center

Front 107

what is the site of temperature sensing in birds?

Back 107

the spinal chord

Front 108

define torpor

Back 108

a state of lowered body temperature and reduced matabolism

Front 109

define hibernation

Back 109

a long period of torpor that lasts for weeks or months , without rem sleep. the animal will occasionally wake up to deficate. hibernaotrs respond to lower body temperature by lowering metabolism.

Front 110

how do endotherms regulate their body temp and metabolism?

Back 110

endotherms modulate their metabolism to produce or dissapate their body temperature back to the thermoneutral zone.

Front 111

how is thermeogenesis activated?

Back 111

the hypothalmus detects a change in body temp and integrates a signal to change and affect it.

Front 112

what are the two processes of thermogenesis?

Back 112

shivering( atp hydrolysis) and non-shivering ( brown fat)

Front 113

define brown adipose tissue?

Back 113

a type of lipid that is structurally different from white adipose tissue in that it is capable of rapidly oxidizing its stored lipids.

Front 114

what activates BAT and what two ways does it produce heat rapidly?

Back 114

the cns releases norepinephrine which activates an increased rate of oxidative phosphorylation. The two processes it uses are, 1) uncoupling of the ETC and 2) it causes the chemical bond energy of the oxidized lipid energy to be converted to heat.

Front 115

what proteijn uncouples brown adipose fat from the etc?

Back 115

UCP1 uncoupling protein one

Front 116

when is a system at equilibrium?

Back 116

a system is at equilibrium when it is impossible for a system to do internal work without inputs or outputs.

Front 117

what is active transport?

Back 117

active transport is the capacity to move against equilibrium potential

Front 118

what is passive transport?

Back 118

passive transport is only the movement with the equlibrium potential

Front 119

what is simple diffusion?

Back 119

simple diffusion, a passive form of transport, is the tendency of molecules at a high concentration to randomly move to a lower concentration

Front 120

what is the formula for ficks diffusion equation? name the variables

Back 120

J=D*((c1-c2)/x)
J = the rate at which diffusion into the low concentration takes place

D=diffusion coefficient
C1= high concentration
C2= low concentration
X= the distance separating the two concentration

Front 121

what affects the diffusion coefficient (D)?

Back 121

1) permeability of the membrane
2) temperature
3) a boundary layer

Front 122

how do electrical gradients influence diffusion?

Back 122

charged solutes such as ( NA+ and CL-) will obey concentration based diffusion rules but can be opposed or aided by the electrical gradient.
ex: na+ aided by a positive charge on the high concentration side.
ex: Na+ opposed by a positive charge on the side of low concentration.

Front 123

what is electrochemical equilibrium?

Back 123

a solute is at equilibrium when its chemical gradient and electrical gradient are equal but opposite.
an uncharged ion is in electrochemical equilibrium when its concentration gradient is zero

Front 124

what three types of solutes dissolve through the membrane without a channel?

Back 124

1) O2
2) NO
3) lipids

Front 125

Name two lipids capable of diffusing through the membrane

Back 125

steroid hormones and fatty acids

Front 126

what types of solutes require a channel?

Back 126

inorganic ions pass through gated channels which have a selective permeability to them.

Front 127

what is donnan equilibrium?

Back 127

if a solutes are speararted by a membrane that is permeable to water and all but one ionic species then there will be an unequal diffusion of permeable solutes.

ex: two permeable = K+, Cl- nonpermeable A-
then more K+ will be on the side that A- is stuck on because it's attracted to it. K+ will be equal to the concentration of Cl- and A- on the original side

Front 128

what are the basic properties of active transport?

Back 128

1) metabolism energy ( ATP) required
2) carrier-mediated
3)can create a voltage difference

Front 129

define electroneutral

Back 129

an active transport situation in which two ions are pumped counter to each other at the same rate so no electrical difference builds up

Front 130

define electrogenic

Back 130

an active transport situation in which two ions are pumper across a membrane to create an electrical difference.

Front 131

what is the difference between primary and secondary active transport?

Back 131

primary active transport uses ATP directly to move solutes and secondary active transport draws energy from an electrochemical gradient but still requires ATP.

Front 132

how does the K+Na+-atpase pump work? is it primary or secondary active transport?

Back 132

the pump works in four steps.
1) 3NA+ are inside the channel as the ATP is hydrolyzed at the catalytic site. the intracellular side closes
2) posphorylation energy is given the the channel, opening the regulatory and catalytic sites. ATP binds to the channel and the extracellular channel opens releasing 3Na+ while taking in 2K+
3) the protein dephosphorylates which lets ATP start to move to the catalytic site
4) the affinity for Na+ increases and the intracellular channel opens releasing 2K+ and taking in 3Na+.
its primary active transport

Front 133

how does secondary active transport work?

Back 133

it uses ATP to create an electrochemical gradient in which a the depletion of a cotransporter in a neighboring cell, forces a solute into that cell with its cotransporter to regain concentration levels

Front 134

define colligative properties

Back 134

colligative properties of aques solutions are those that depend on the number of dissolved solutes per volume

Front 135

what are three examples of colligative properties?

Back 135

1) osmotic pressure
2) freezing point depression
3) water-vapor pressure depression

Front 136

define osmosis

Back 136

the passive movement of water from regions of low osmotic pressure to high osmotic pressure

Front 137

define hydrostatic pressure

Back 137

a pressure created when two fluids separated by a semi-permeable membrane move water into a region of higher osmotic pressure. if this region is unable to expand then a pressure builds up due to water molecules building in that space

Front 138

define colloidal osmotic pressure

Back 138

the portion of the blood-plasma osmotic pressure that is caused by nonpermeating dissolved proteins.

Front 139

what does hypertonic mean to a cell?

Back 139

when a cell is in a solution that has a greater amount of solutes on the outside than the inside

Front 140

what does hyperosmotic mean?

Back 140

a solution with a higher osmotic pressure

Front 141

what does hyposmotic mean?

Back 141

a solution with a lower osmotic pressure.

Front 142

what does hypotonic mean to a cell?

Back 142

if a cell is in a solution with a lower amount of solutes than the cell, water will flood into it

Front 143

what does isotonic mean to a cell?

Back 143

if a cell is in a solution with an equal amount of solutes inside the cell as outside the cell.

Front 144

what are properties of neural control?

Back 144

1) fast acting
2) directly targeted
3)uses neurotransmitters

Front 145

what are properties of endocrine control?

Back 145

1) slow acting
2) active over a large range of cells
3) uses blood hormones that only act on cells with the right receptors

Front 146

what are the five parts of a neuron and what do they do?

Back 146

1) denrites- receives incoming signals
2)soma- interperates, integrates and generates signals
3)axon hillock- site of AP initiation
4) axon-conducts AP along its length
5) presynaptic terminal-releases neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft

Front 147

name four types of glial cells and what do they do?

Back 147

1)schwann cells-ensheathe axons in peripheral NS
2) oligodendrocytes-ensheath acons in CNS
3) astrocytes- metabolic support cells in the CNS

4) microglial cells- phagocytes related to cells of the immune system.