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285 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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circulatory system
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transport of blood throughout the body's tissues
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Respiratory system
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exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen; regulation of hyxdrogen ion concentration
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digestive system
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digestiona nd absorption of organic nutrients, salts, and water
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Urinary system
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regulation of plasma composition through controlled excretion of salts, water, and organic wastes
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musculoskeletal system
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support, protection, and mov't of the body; production of blood cells
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immune system
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defense against foreign invaders; rturn of extracellular fluid to blood; formation of white blood cells
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nervous system
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regluation and coordination of many activities in the body; detection of changes in the internal and external env'ts; states of consciousness; learning; cognition
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circulatory system
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transport of blood throughout the body's tissues
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endocrine system
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regulation and coordination of many activities in the cody, including growth, metabolism, reproduction, blood pressure, electrolyte balance, and others
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Respiratory system
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exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen; regulation of hyxdrogen ion concentration
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digestive system
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digestiona nd absorption of organic nutrients, salts, and water
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reproductive system
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production of sperm; transfer of sperm to female; production of eggs; provision of a nutritive env't for the developing embryo and fetus; nutrition of the infant
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integumentary system
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protection against injury and dehydration; defense against foreign invaders; regulation of temperature
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Urinary system
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regulation of plasma composition through controlled excretion of salts, water, and organic wastes
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Physiology
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the study of how living organisms work
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musculoskeletal system
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support, protection, and mov't of the body; production of blood cells
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immune system
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defense against foreign invaders; rturn of extracellular fluid to blood; formation of white blood cells
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pathophysiology
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some disease states can be viewed as physiology "gone wrong"
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nervous system
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regluation and coordination of many activities in the body; detection of changes in the internal and external env'ts; states of consciousness; learning; cognition
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cell differentiation
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the process of transforming an unspecialized cell into a specialized cell
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levels of cellular organization
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fertilized egg; cell division and growth; cell differentiation; specialized cell types; tissues; funtional unit (nephron); organ (kidney); organ system (urinary system); total organism(human being)
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endocrine system
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regulation and coordination of many activities in the cody, including growth, metabolism, reproduction, blood pressure, electrolyte balance, and others
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muscle cells
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specialized to generate the mechanical forces that produce movement; may be attached to bones and produce move't of the limbs or trunk
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reproductive system
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production of sperm; transfer of sperm to female; production of eggs; provision of a nutritive env't for the developing embryo and fetus; nutrition of the infant
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integumentary system
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protection against injury and dehydration; defense against foreign invaders; regulation of temperature
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Physiology
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the study of how living organisms work
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pathophysiology
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some disease states can be viewed as physiology "gone wrong"
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cell differentiation
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the process of transforming an unspecialized cell into a specialized cell
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levels of cellular organization
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fertilized egg; cell division and growth; cell differentiation; specialized cell types; tissues; funtional unit (nephron); organ (kidney); organ system (urinary system); total organism(human being)
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muscle cells
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specialized to generate the mechanical forces that produce movement; may be attached to bones and produce move't of the limbs or trunk
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nerve cells
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specialized to initiate and conduct electrical signals, often over long distances; a signal may initiate new electrical signals in other nerve cells, or it may stimulate secretion by a gland cell or contraction of a muscle cell
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epithelial cells
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specialized for the selective secretion an dabsorption of ions an organic molecules, and for protection; located minly at the surfaces that cover the body of individual organs or live the walls fo various tubular and hollow structures within the body.
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basement membrane
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epithelial cells rest here on the extracellular protein layer; form s the boundaries btwn compartments and function as selective barriers regulating the exchange of molecules across them
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external env't
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the env't surrounding the body
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Connective Tissue Cells
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connect, anchor, and support the structures of the body
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tissues
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most specialized cells are associated with other cells of a similar kind to form tissues; ex: muscle, nerve, epithelial, and CT tissues
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extracellular matrix
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consits of a mixture of protien molecules specific for any fiven tissue; function: provides a scaffold for cellular attachments and it transits info to the cells, in the form of chemical messengers, that help regulate their activity, migration, growth and differentiation
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fibers
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proteins of the extracellular matrix consist of fibers
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collagen fibers
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ropelike fibers
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elastin fibers
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rubberband like fibers
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organs
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composed of four kinds of tissues arranged in various proportions and patterns: sheets, tubes, layers, bundles, strips, and so on
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functional units
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organs organized in to small, similar subunits
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internal env't
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fluid surrounding all cells; extracellular fld
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homeostasis
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relative constancy of internal env't (ph=7.38-7.42)
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Homeostatic control system
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body's attempt to stay constant
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interstitial fld
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bathes the cells (11L); lies btwn the cells; 80% of extracellular fld
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plasma
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malignant part of blood (3L); 20%of extracellular fld
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buffer
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neutralizes acidity
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intracellular fld
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the fluid inside the cells
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extracellular fld
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the fluid present in blood and int he spaces surrounding cells
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body fluid compartments
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total body water=42 L
extracellular fld (2 locs) -interstitial fld=11L -blood plasma=3L intracellular fld=2/3 of total body water=28L |
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homeostatic control system
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collection of interconnected components that keeps a physical or chemical parameter of internal env't relatively constant within a predetermined rage of values
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steady state
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a system in which a particular variable is not changing but energy must be added continuously to maintain this variable constant
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equilibrium
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a particular variable is not changing but not input of energy is required to maintain the constancy
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set point/operatin point
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steady state temp of the thermoregulatory system
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Negative feedback system
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an increase or decrease in the variable being regulated brings about responses that tend to move the variable in the direction opposite the direction of the original change; pain or temp stimulus; nervous impulses made here
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hormones
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chemicals produced in ductless glands
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neuroendocrine cells
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have a nervous impulse and produce a neurotransmitter that is found in the hypothalamus of the brain (posterior lobe of the pituitary)
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Positive feedback
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may actually accelerate a process , leading to an "explosive" system
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feedforward
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regulation anticipates changes in a regulated variable such as internal body temp, improves the speed of the body's homeostatic responses, and minimizes fluctuations in the level of the variable being regulated; it reduces the amt of deviation from the set point
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reflex arc
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pathway mediating a reflex
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stimulus
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a detectable change int eh internal or external env't such as a change in the temp, plasma potassium conc, or BP
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receptor
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detects the env't change
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integrating center
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when a stimulus acts upon a receptor to produce a signal that is relayed to here
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afferent pathway
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the pathway traveled by the signal btwn the receptor and the integrating center
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effector
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a device whose change in activity constitues the overall response of the system
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efferent pathway
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the pathway along which the info travels
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endocrice gland
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hormone-secreting gland
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local homeostatic responses
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are intiated by a change in the external or internal env't (stimulus) and they induce an alteration of cell activity with the net effect of counteracting the stimulus
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target cells
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cell influenced by a certain hormone
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neurotransmitters
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where most nerve cells communicate with each other or with effector cells by means of chemical messengers
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paracrine agents
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chemical messengers involved in local communication btwn cells
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autocrine agents
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chemical messenger that is secreted into extracellular fld and acts upon cell that secreted it
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adaptation
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denotes a characteristic that favors survival in specific env'ts
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critical period
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time during dvp't when a system is most readily influenced by factors, sometimes irreversibly
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developmental acclimatization
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if an acclimatiztion is induced very early in life, however, at the critical period for dvp't of a structure of response
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circadian rhythm
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biorythms, happen on a frequency of one per day, can see in a different time zone
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entrainment
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setting of the actual hours
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free running rhythm
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a sleep-wake cycle persisted in the complete absence of env'tl clues
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phase-shift rhythms
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to reset the internal clock
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pacemaker
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time clock; collection of nerve cells/suprachaismatic nucleus
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pineal gland
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a gland within the brain that secretes the hormone melatonin
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apoptosis
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(type of cell death) the ability to self destruct by activation of an instrinsic "cell suicide" program
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necrosis
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cell death due to injury; the plasma membrane is disrupted, and the cell swells and releases its cytoplasmic material, inducing and inflammatory reponse
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pool
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occupies a position of central importance in the balance sheet in homeostasis of chemicals
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three stages of total-body balance
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1)loss exceeds gain, so that the total amt of the substance in teh body is decreasing, and the person is said to be in a neg. balance;
2)gain exceeds loss, so that the total amt of the substance in the body is increasing, and the person is said to be in a pos. balance; 3)gain equals loss, and the person is in stable balance |
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99% of living cells
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C, H, N, O, P, S (6 elements of table)(all have nitrogenous bases)
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Energy
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capacity to do work
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Potential energy
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stored energy to use at a later time
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Kinetic Energy
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energy of motion used immediately
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Subatomic Particles
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1)protons: atomic wt=1, pos charge
2)neutrons: atomic wt=1, neutral charge 3)electrons: atomic wt=0, neg. charged (1/1837) |
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atomic number
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number of protons in nucleus
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uncharge atom
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will have equal number of atoms as protons and neutrons
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atomic weight
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based on number of protons and neutrons in an atom
ex: 6p+6n=12awt |
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Chemical bond
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join atoms or ions into molecules
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isotopes
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c12(must have 6 neutrons) vs c14 (must have 8 neutrons & raidoactive)
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Ions
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differece btwn protons and electrons
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cations
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pos charge, more protons than electrons
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anions
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neg charge, more electrons than protons
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Functional Grps: OH
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CH3=methyl
COOH=carboxyl(one dbl bond, 2 single bonds, and all have a bond to connect to grp) NH2=amino grps, single bonds PO4=phosphate, pair of molecules |
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Ionic bond
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no sharing of electrons w/ nucleus, strongest bond
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Covalent bond
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shared electrons
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polar covalent bond
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unequal sharing of electrons
ex: H2O |
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nonpolar covalent bond
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sharing of electrons
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Hydrogen bonds
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weak, break easy, in polar molecules, btwn mitrogenous pieces of DNA
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interphase
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replication of DNA occurs at this time
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Active transport
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substances that are already present in high concentration inside the cell can continue to enter a cell only by active transport
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Nucleotide
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composed of a nitrogenous base, a 5 carbon sugar, and a phosphate grp
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non protein part of the cell membrane
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a double layer of phospholipid molecules whose hydrophobic tails face eachother
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simple and facilitated diffusion don't require_______
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the expenditure of cellular energy
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exocytosis
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how a secretory vesicle leaves a cell
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positively charged
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atoms with more protons than electrons
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tRNA
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the type of RNA that attaches to a specific amino acid and brings it to their ribosome
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glycerol
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a molecule that contains 3 hydoxyl groups that con form bonds with fatty acid to form a neutral fat molecule (triacylglycerol)
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primary structure of a protein
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the polypedtide chain 1st produced at the end of translation represents the primary structure of a protein. If this structure is coiled into an alpha helix the protein now has a 2nd structure
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RNA
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-contains ribose as its sugar
-is a single strand of nucleotides -contains uracil instead of thymine |
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Peptide bond
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forms btwn an amino acid grp of one amino acid and a carboxyl grp of an adjacent amino acid
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hydolysis
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a type of rxn that occurs when H20 is added to a large molecule which then breaks into smaller molecules
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intrinsic proteins
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span across the plasma membrane and may serve as channel proteins
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normal ph of blood
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7.38-7.42=slightly basic
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BLT
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b=1)fats
2)proteins B & T=carbs |
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Chemical Rxns
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reactants & products
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reactants
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put them together to form a product
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products
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reactants that are put together to form something
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hydrophilic
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dissolves, water loving, polar, soluble in water (salt/sugar)
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hydrophobic
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doesn't like water, doesn't dissolve in water, (oil)
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pH scale
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acidity or alkalinity,
-log[H+] |
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acid
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if H+ is greater than OH-
H+ donors |
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base
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if OH- is greater than H+
H+ acceptors |
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buffers
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minimize change in pH, add H+/OH-
-impt in neutralizing stomach acidity as it moves into small intestines (ex: tums) |
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HCO3
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bicarbonate, buffer in body
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Concentration gradients
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-diffusion and osmosis
-exist if 2 adjacent regions have different concentration particles |
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Diffusion
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solute molecules high to low concentration(in membrane barriers)
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osmosis
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diffusion of H2O, subset of diffusion of H2O molecules only
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Osmotic Pressure
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F needed to prevent water mov't, measured by force needed to prevent water from crossing membrane to another concentration level
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Organic Macromolecules
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Carbs(glucose), monosaccharides, disaccharides
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monosaccharides
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single sugars (glucose)
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disaccharides
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double sugars; condensation rxn; water given off whan forming larger sugar (table sugar & sucrose)
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Hydrolysis
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splitting of water to make a monosaccharide
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Polysaccharide
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chains, many monosaccharides; multiple sugar, broken down into disaccharides, (glycogen, starch, human equivalent to plants = 100 single sugars)
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Glycoproteins
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sugars+proteins: in cell membrane
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Glycolipids
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sugars+lipids: also in cell membrane, combination of sugars and lipids, transport molecules
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Lipids
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fats, soluble in nonpolar solvents, not soluble in water, can't pass through or dissolve in water,
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fat
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triacylglycerol, 3 fatty acids + 1 glycerol, fatty acids bonded to glyceroln & give off water (a major component in cell membrane(phospholipid))
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Saturated Fatty Acid
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only single C-C bonds, no doulbe bonds, found in lard & animal fats, unhealthy
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Unsaturated Fatty Acid
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>= 1 double C=C bond, found in plant oils, healthier from humans
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Phospholipids
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gycerol+2fattyacids+phophate+choline
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Steroids
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4 rings, need cholesterol
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Proteins
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lar molecules, diverse function, common w/ >2000 different kinds in body, diverse functions, enzymes
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Amino acids
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units of protein, building blocks of proteins, integral or intrinsic span across proteins
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Peptide bonds
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link amino acids, COOH +NH2(1aa gives up hydoxle-OH-water formed & peptide bond formed)
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polypeptide
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more than 3
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Protein properties
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number or sequence of amino acids
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Protein structure
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levels of organization
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Pimary
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sequence of amino acids linked together to get a long chain
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secondary
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conformation, folding chain
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tertiary
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folding of alpha helix upon itself,
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quarternary
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2 chains fitted together, 2 different polypeptide chains that join together, (hemoglobin)
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Nucleic acids
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DNA & RNA
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nucleotide
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building blocks, each nucleotide is fromed by PO4+C5 sugar+Nbase
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Backbone
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PO4+C5 sugar; N base varies
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neucleotide bases
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Purines & Pyrimidines
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Purines
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Adenine & Guanine for both dna and rna
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pyrimidines
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DNA:cytosine, thymine (2chains)
RNA:cytosine, uracil(1chain) |
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Coenzymes
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NAD-partly from adenines; most widely used enzyme that collect high energy e-'s and passing them down the chain
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deoxyribose
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removed one O2 from sugar
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ribose
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one O2 added
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DNA
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deoxyribose;thymine;2strands in helix;antiparallel strands(running in diff directions but parallel);DNA+proteins make up chromosomes; most in nucleus, some 5% in mitochondrial DNA outside nucleus
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RNA
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ribose;Uracil;one strand in helix;one strand;not in chromosomes;most in cytoplasm; rRNA&mRNA
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Double Helix
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2 nucleic strands, N base "steps"(AT&GC make up steps in ladder)
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Base pairing
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2 H bonds with A&T;easily broken and formed like a zipper
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new cells
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come from pre-existing cells, no spontaneous generation of cells
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all cells
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same fundamental chemistry makeup, macromolecules are predominant in cells other than H2O
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Prokaryotic
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lack nuclear membrane, membrane bound cells, bacteria=monera kingdom
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Eukaryotic
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make up protista,fungi,plante,animalia; true nuclear membrane; have membrane bound organelles
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cytoplasm
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part of cell outside of nucleus
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organelles
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structures within liquid
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metabolism
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2cell processes: anabolism & catabolism
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anabolism
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synthesis fo larger molecules from smaller molecules, give off O2 as a biproduct (ex:protein synthesis)
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catabolism
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breakdown starch sugars into smaller monosacharides
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ribosomes
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protein factories; in all living things; procaryotic and eucaryotic cells made up of ribosomal RNA
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Gene
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products; segment of DNA, code for one polypeptide chain
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mRNA
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from DNA; ribosomes, u instead of t, complimentary base pairing
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exocytosis
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proteins in cell membrane; taking molecules in the cell and exporting them; molecules will pass through protein channels to preserve information
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enzymes
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come from lysosomes and food molecules come from energy that form many molecules (ATP)
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Maintaining Cell Env't
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ell membrane protects adn allows mov't in/out of cell
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organelle membranes
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separate from rest of cell w/ a membrane around it
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Process of obtaining Energy
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food molecules & enzymes; through food molecules and the enzymes that break them down
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Energy from Lysosomes
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ATP; provide energy that can breakdown large molecules and use for ATP
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Nucleus
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site DNA; RNA made/synthesized;
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DNA
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same genetic info every somatic cell; same blueprint for all cells, only use part of it;
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Gene
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segment of chromosome w/ info 1 polypeptide
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Genome
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sum of all genes in cell; all together
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Chromosome
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DNA & Histone; a combination
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hydrogen bond
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single strand of DNA
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mRNA
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information, which amino acids added, sequence info taken from DNA to make a sequence
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tRNA
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brings certain amino acids to ribosomes where there is one type of tRNA for every amino acid
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rRNA
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add proteins, from ribosomes, complex w/ proteins to form ribosomes
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nuclear pores
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molecules pass in/out of nucleus through holes in the nuclear membrane
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Cytoplasm
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between nucleus and cell membrane
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precursors
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cell function requires supply of macromolecules made from here (small molecules in cytosol)
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
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rough w/ ribosomes; smooth w/o ribosomes
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Rough ER
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ribosomes attached to outter reticulum; protein synthesis occurs here
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Smooth ER
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no ribosomes attached; site of lipid synthesis, many types;
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Polypeptides
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synthesis in ribosomes, go inside ER and transported where needed throughout the cell
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golgi complex
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pack in various molecules & vesicles; loading dock of a factory;
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Exocytosis
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when secretory vesicles carry macromolecules to the cell membrane and fuse with it
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endocytosis
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phago vs. pinocytosis
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phagocytosis
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taking in solid particles
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pinocytosis
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taking in small amounts of liquid
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mRNA
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information, which amino acids added, sequence info taken from DNA to make a sequence
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tRNA
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brings certain amino acids to ribosomes where there is one type of tRNA for every amino acid
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rRNA
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add proteins, from ribosomes, complex w/ proteins to form ribosomes
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nuclear pores
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molecules pass in/out of nucleus through holes in the nuclear membrane
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Cytoplasm
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between nucleus and cell membrane
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precursors
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cell function requires supply of macromolecules made from here (small molecules in cytosol)
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
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rough w/ ribosomes; smooth w/o ribosomes
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Rough ER
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ribosomes attached to outter reticulum; protein synthesis occurs here
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Smooth ER
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no ribosomes attached; site of lipid synthesis, many types;
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Polypeptides
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synthesis in ribosomes, go inside ER and transported where needed throughout the cell
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golgi complex
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pack in various molecules & vesicles; loading dock of a factory;
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Exocytosis
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when secretory vesicles carry macromolecules to the cell membrane and fuse with it; export
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endocytosis
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phago vs. pinocytosis; import
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phagocytosis
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taking in solid particles
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pinocytosis
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taking in small amounts of liquid
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Peroxisomes
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enzymes use O2 to remove wastes in cell
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mitochondria
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double membrane; use O2 & food to make useable products and run the cell; ATP; powerhouse of cell
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cytoskeleton
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3 types of protein fibers; microfil, intermed fil, microtublules
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microfil
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diameter =7nm; skeletal muscle
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intermed fil
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diameter=10nm
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microtubules
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diameter=25nm
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cell cycle
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time from one mytosis to the next; time of cell life cycle; can be brief if a cancer cell due to rapid dividing
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interphase
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1st phase, cell growth; protein synthesis; DNA replication; new cells grow larger back to size at end of mitosis
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Mitosis
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2nd phase, somatic cells division; P.M.A.T.
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P.M.A.T.
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division of nucleus
P=prophase M=metaphase A=anaphase T=telophase |
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cancerous cells
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form neoplasms (cluster of cancerous cells); interphase short here
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Cell membrane
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highly selective filter; allows nutrients in and wastes out
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Fluid Mosaic Model
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most widely accepted theory of membranes today; made up of phospholipids and proteins; double layer(lipid bilayer); integral protein imbedded in layer; 50% mass protein & 50% lipid
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Integral protein
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will span entire membrane, allows certain molecules to pass thru
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Amphipathis molecules
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amphibian/ dual life; molecules that have hydrophobic and philic regions w/ hydrophobic fatty acid tails
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Phospholipid end
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hydrophilic (polar) head & 2 fatty acid tails, hide from water, bilayer inferior, move stabilized by cholesterol
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cholesterol
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glycolipid that helps stabilize the structure of phospholipids
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2 types of molecules that make up cell membranes
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phospholipid bilayer & protein
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intrinsic
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span bilayer, amphipathic w/ hydrophilic; integral, hydrophobic, and hydrophilic regions
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extrinsic
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don't span the bilayer
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carbohydrate
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hydophilic, common on external surface; make up 2-10% of mass, but still important; most either glycoproteins or glycolipids; most do complex work w/ other to work;
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carbohydrate function
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receptors of hormones
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passive transport
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occurs with concentration gradient, producing less concentrated fld(gas or liquid) by diffusion
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osmosis
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water molecules diffusing
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active transport
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occurs against concentration gradient, form more concentrated fld where high concentration existed; require energy to claim form of ATP
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Diffusion
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movement from one area to a second area by random thermal motion
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net flux
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from higher area to lower area of concentration
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diffused equilibrium
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when concentrations become equal in 2 sides of membrane
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magnitude of net flux, F, proportional to:
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1)conc. difference across membrane
2)suface area of membrane A and small surface area=sm amt 3)permeability constant (kp) |
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permeability constant, kp,
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easy to get through; high percent constant; high to low p.c.
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Simple diffusion
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no energy needed; substate through w/o Energy protein w/o carrier
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facilitated diffusion
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substrate requires protein by no energy, easily; requires carrier proteins that require energy but fac dif doesn't require energy
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phospholipid bilayer
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nonpolar(fatty acid tail) molecules faster
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facilitated diffusion of lipid-insoluble substrates
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are redily passed through proteins; aided by the presence of proteins; glucose, ammino acids; require membrane proteins, carriers w/ channels, to diffuse across membrane (plasma/cell)
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facilitated diffusion differs from simple diffusion by:
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-much faster transport of solutes (aided situation)
-saturable process(limit to rate; only small # of proteins so can't go faster) -highly specific (protein carrier; carries only one thing) -can be blocked by competitive inhibitors |
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competitive inhibitors
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molecule that might be similar but can block the channel; if it happens it can kill the cells
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competitive inhibition
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related comp's compete for same binding sites causing the transport of desired molecules
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active transport
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only thing that requires energy because H active; against conc. gradient, energy; continue as long as energy & solute available; requires carrier proteins
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carrier proteins
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requires energy for AT but not for simple or passive
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Fundamental intracellular control system
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use DNA info in transcription of mRNA to amino acid polypeptide (pro.)
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genetic code
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gene, genome, chromo, DNA complex histones, and transcription and translation
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genetic expression
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selective use of DNA (diff seg of DNA in each cell, lots not used); most info is suppressed(not used); only certain genes are expressed to form proteins
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genetic code
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DNA info & sequence of amino acids;
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DNA replication
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occurs during S phase of interphase where nucleus isn't dividing
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transcription
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done in DNA
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translation
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done in RNA
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Initiation
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1st step in translation; the start codon=AUG near 5' end
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elogation
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2nd step in translation; 2nd tRNA w/ a.a's come into A-site, anticodon plugs into the codon of mRNA; complimentary base pairs w/ codon
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termination
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3rd step in translation; when ribosome reaches stop codon, polypeptide breaks off last tRNA & then releases it
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Polysome
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several ribosomes on same mRNA stand/rivet; each makes 1 mol of same polypeptide
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transcription controlled
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genes turned on or off, permit/restrict RNA polymerase from attaching to promoter site of DNA segment; in nucleus cell decides if it is going to make cells of that type
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Promoter B
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is a segment of DNA and is attached to the promoter
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Protein A
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will transfer to lysosomes to break down the cell
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protein pathways
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secreted by exocytosis; transfer to lysosomes (lower right); break down the cell; are either exported or transpoted to lysosomes
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allosteric modulation
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binding of modulator moleclue to regulatory site on allosteric protein changes shape of functional binding site, so changes bind charges & activity of proteins
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2 coenzymes
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FADH2 & NADH
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Rates of enzyme mediated rxns increased by
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1)warmer temps in range 0-40C
2)increases substrate conc and enzyme concentration 3)increase enzyme affinity for S by allosteric mod speeds rate active site converts substance to product |
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coenzyme in glycolysis
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NADH
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endocrine glands
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ductless
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Exocrine glands
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has duct
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