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88 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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3 components of a neuron
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1)dendrites
2)soma (cell body) 3)axon |
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Neuronal transmission of information
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WITHIN the neuron=transmitted from dendrites to axon through an electrical process called conduction
BETWEEN CELLS=chemical process (synaptic transmission) that involves the release of a neurotransmitter into the synapse. |
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Acetylcholine (ACh)
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neurotransmitter
found throughout the peripheral and CNS causes muscles to contract; is involved in REM sleep, the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle and memory. |
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Two types of cholinergic receptors
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Nicotinic=excitatory
Muscarinic=inhibitory |
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Degeneration of cholinergic (ACh) cells in the _________ cortex and other areas that communicate directly with the hippocampus is believed to underlie memory deficits associated with ___________ _________.
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1)entorhinal
2)Alzhiemer's disease |
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Catecholamines
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Neurotransmitters
Include Norepinephrine (noradrenaline), epinephrine (adrenaline), and dopamine Involved in a number of functions including personality, mood, memory, and sleep. |
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Low levels of norepinephrine and dopamine are associated with...
...while excessive activity at dopamine synapses has been linked to.... |
depression
Schizophrenia and Tourette's syndrome |
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Dopamine is involved in.....
Degeneration of dopamine receptors in the ..... |
the regulation of movement
substantia nigra and nearby areas underlies the tremors, muscle rigidity, and other motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease |
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CATECHOLAMINES: KNOW 6 CATEGORIES
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1)Acetylcholine (ACh)
2)Catecholamines (inc. norepinephrine, epi, and dopamine) 3)Serotonin (5-HT) 4)Gamma-aminobutryic acid (GABA) 5)Glutamate 6)Endorphins |
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Serotonin
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(5-HT) Neurotransmitter
usually inhibitory Implicated in mood, hunger, temperature regulation, sexual activity, arousal, sleep, aggression, and migraine headache. Elevated 5HT contribute to Schizo and Autism Low levels play a role in depression, suicide, PTSD, OCD, and aggression |
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Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
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neurotransmitter
inhibitory linked to sleep, eating, seizure and anxiety disorders GABA levels are affected by benzodiazepines and other CNS depressants which are commonly used to treat anxiety |
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Degeneration of cells that secrete __________ in the _________ ___________ contribute to the motor symptoms of Huntington's Disease
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GABA
Basal Ganglia |
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Glutamate
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Excitatory neurotransmitter
Plays a role in learning and memory (more specifically, plays a role in long term potentiation which is believed to be responsible for the formation of LONG-TERM MEMORIES) |
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Excessive glutamate activity (aka "____________") can lead to _____________ and may contribute to stroke-related brain damage, Hungtington's, Alzheimers, and other neurodegenerative disorders
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"excitotoxicity"
seizures |
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Endorphins
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inhibitory neruotransmitters (actually neuromodulators)
lower the sensitivity of postsynaptic neurons to neurotransmitters have analgesic (pain killing) properties, "endogenous morphines" implicated in pleasurable experiences, the control of emotions, memory and learning, and sexual behavior |
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Divisions of the Nervous System
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1) Peripheral NS
2)Central NS |
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Peripheral Nervous System
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1)Somatic NS
2)Autonomic NS |
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Somatic Nervous System
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part of the Peripheral NS
consists of sensory nerves that carry info from the body's sense receptors to the CNS and motor nerves that carry info from the CNS to the skeletal muscles governs VOLUNTARY activities |
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Autonomic Nervous System
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part of Perphipheral NS
primarilly associated with INVOLUNTARY activities BUT biofeedback and hypnosis and other techniques show that some autonomic activities can be brought under control further divided into the SYMPATHETIC and PARASYMPATHETIC branchs |
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Sympathetic branch
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part of Autonomic NS (which is part of Peripheral NS)
AROUSAL and EXPENDITURE of energy Causes dilation of pupils, inhibition of peristalsis, dry mouth, sweating, and increased bp and heart rate |
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Parasympathetic Branch
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part of Autonomic NS (which is part of Peripheral NS)
CONSERVATION of energy, is active during digestion and periods of rest and relaxation this is the part of the peripheral NS that biofeedback seeks to regulate/control |
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Central Nervous System
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includes the spinal cord and brain
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The Substructures of the brain are categorized in terms of THREE divisions:
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1)The Hindbrain
2)The Midbrain 3)The Forebrain |
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Hindbrain
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1)Medulla
2)Pons 3)Cerebellum Medulla + Pons=BRAIN STEM |
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Medulla
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Part of the hindbrain (and part of brainstem)
Influences the flow of information between the spinal cord and brain coordinates SWALLOWING, COUGHING, SNEEZING and REGULATES BREATHING, HEARTBEAT, and BLOOD PRESSURE |
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Pons
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Part of the hindbrain (and part of brainstem)
connects the two halves of the cerebellum Plays a role in the INTEGRATION OF MOVEMENTS IN THE RIGHT and LEFT SIDE of the BODY |
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Cerebellum
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part of the Hindbrain
Important for BALANCE, POSTURE, and in conjunction with the basal ganglia and motor cortex, is VITAL TO THE PERFORMANCE OF COORDINATED and REFINED MOTOR MOVEMENTS implicated in sensorimotor learning and some aspects of cognitive function (e.g., ability to shift attention) |
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A smaller than normal cerebellum has been linked to _______________
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Autism
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Damage to the cerebellum can produce....
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ATAXIA (a condition involving slurred speech, severe tremors, and a los of balance)
the similarity of these symptoms to drunk bxs is b/c alcohol exerts a strong effect on the cerebellum |
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The MIDBRAIN
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all neural information that travels between the brain and spinal cord passes thru the midbrain
Includes the Reticular Formation |
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Reticular Formation
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Part of midbrain
Important for RESPIRATION, COUGHING, VOMITING, POSTURE, LOCOMOTION, and REM Sleep includes the reticular activating system several GENERAL ANESTHETICS work by deactivation the neruons of the reticular formation |
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Reticular Activating System
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Part of Midbrain (part of Reticular Formation)
VITAL to CONSCIOUSNESS, AROUSAL, and WAKEFULNESS Damage can produce a coma-like state of sleep |
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Forebrain
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Includes Subcortical and Cortical Structures
Subcortical 1)Thalamus 2)Hypothalamus 3)Basal Ganglia 4)Limbic System Cortical Structures (Cerebral Cortex)--4 lobes 1)Frontal Lobe 2)Parietal Lobe 3)Temporal Lobe 4)Occipital Lobe |
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Subcortical Structures of the Forebrain
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1)Thalamus
2)Hypothalamus 3)Basal Ganglia 4)Limbic System |
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Thalamus
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subcortical structure of the forebrain
"relay station" that transmits incoming sensory info to the appropriate ares of the cortex for ALL of the senses EXCEPT smell (smell=amygdala--part of the basal ganglia) Involved in MOTOR ACTIVITY, LANGUAGE, and MEMORY |
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Korsakoff's syndrome
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Involves atrophy of neurons in the dorsomedial nucleus of the THALAMUS and the mammillary bodies of the HYPOTHALAMUS. Caused by THIAMINE deficiency (usually due to alcoholism)
Involves severe ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA, RETROGRADE AMNESIA and confabulation |
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Hypothalamus
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subcortical structure of the forebrain
Involved in HUNGER, THIRST, SEX, SLEEP, BODY TEMP, MOVEMENT, and EMOTIONAL RXNS Includes the SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS |
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Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
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Located in the hypothalamus
Mediates the sleep-wake cycle and other circadian rhythms. May be involved in SAD |
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Basal Ganglia
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Subcortical structure of the Forebrain
Includes the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra PLANNING, ORGANIZING, and COORDINATING VOLUNTARY MOV'T, REGULATING THE AMPLITUDE AND DIRECTION OF MOTOR ACTIONS Involved in SENSORIMOTOR LEARNING and in STEREOTYPED, SPECIES-SPECIFIC MOTORIC EXPRESSION OF EMOTIONS (e.g., smiling) HUNTINGTON'S, PARKINSON'S, TOURETTE'S, also implicated in mania, depression, OCD symptoms and psychosis |
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Limbic System
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subcortical structure of the forebrain
involved in some cognitive functions, but it is PRIMARILLY ASSOC WITH THE MEDIATION OF EMOTION Includes 1)Amygdala 2)Hippocampus |
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Amygdala
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Part of the Limbic system (which is a subcortical structure of the forebrain)
Integrates, coordinates, and directs MOTIVATIONAL and EMOTIONAL activities ATTACHES EMOTIONS to MEMORIES Involved in the RECALL of EMOTIONALLY-CHARGED experiences. |
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Hippocampus
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Part of the Limbic system (which is a subcortical structure of the forebrain)
less directly implicated in emotions involved in PROCESSING SPATIAL, VISUAL, and VERBAL information and CONSOLIDATING declarative memories (converting STMs to LTMs) |
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Four lobes of the cerebral cortex
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1)Frontal Lobe
2)Parietal Lobe 3)Temportal Lobe 4)Occipital Lobe |
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Frontal Lobe
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part of the cerebral cortex (forebrain)
Includes MOTOR, PREMOTOR, and PREFRONTAL areas |
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Primary Motor Cortex
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Frontal Lobe
control of voluntary movements damage can result in loss of reflexes and loss of muscle tone on opposite (contralateral) |
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Premotor Cortex
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part of frontal lobe
Contain's BROCA's AREA (usually on Left side) |
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Broca's Area
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Part of the Premotor Cortex (frontal lobe)
involved in speech PRODUCTION damage causes BROCA's APHASIA (Expressive)=diff in producing spoken and written language |
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Prefrontal Cortex
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Frontal Lobe
involved in a variety of COMPLEX BX's including EMOTION, MEMORY, SELF-AWARENESS and EXECUTIVE (higher level cognitive) functions |
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Lesions in the Prefrontal Cortex can cause....
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pseudodepression
or pseudopsychopathy |
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Damage to the Prefrontal Cortex include....
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Problems with ABSTRACT thinking, PLANNING ability, DECISION making, PERSEVERATION, and an inability to remember the temporal order of events
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Parietal Lobe
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part of the cerebral cortex
contains the SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX which governs pressure, temperature, pain, propioception, and gustation |
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Somatosensory Cortex
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part of the PARIETAL LOBE (cerebral cortex)
governs pressure, temperature, pain, propioception, and gustation |
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Common symptoms of PARIETAL lobe DAMAGE include....
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disturbances in spatial orientation
apraxia (inability to perfrom skilled motor movements w/o impaired motor functioning) --inc. tactile agnosia (failure to rec familiar objects by touch), anosognosia (failure to fec one's own neurological sxs or disorder), asomatognosia (failure to rec parts of one's own body) |
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Temporal Lobe
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cerebral cortex
contains the AUDITORY cortex, which mediates auditory sensation and perception AUDITORY CORTEX contains WERNICKE's AREA areas mediate ENCODING, RETRIEVAL and STORAGE of LONG TERM DECLARATIVE MEMORIES |
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Lesions in the AUDITORY CORTEX
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can cause auditory agnosia, auditory hallucitations, and other auditory perception and sensation probs
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WERNICKE's AREA
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in the AUDITORY CORTEX in the TEMPORAL LOBE (usually on the dominant/Left side)
COMPREHENSION OF LANGUAGE |
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Lesions in Wernicke's area...
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cause Wernicke's (receptive) aphasia=severe deficits in language comprehension and abnormalities in language production
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Occipital Lobe
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Cerebral Cortex
contains the VISUAL CORTEX=visual perception, recognition and memory |
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Damage to the occipital lobes can result in....
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visual agnosia (inability to recognize familiar objects)
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Lesions at the junction of the occipital, temporal and parietal lobes can cause....
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PROSOPAGNOSIA (inability to recognize familiar faces)
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Corpus Collosum
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connects the right and left hemispheres of the cerebral cortex
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Hemispheric Specialization
Visual System |
Left (dominant)=letters, words
Right=complex geometric patterns, facial recognition |
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Hemispheric Specialization
Auditory System |
Left=language related sounds
Right=music and non-lang sounds |
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Hemispheric Specialization
Memory |
Left (dominant)=Verbal Memory
Right=Nonverbal memory |
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Hemispheric Specialization
Language |
Left=speech, reading, writing, arithmetic
Right=....nothing listed |
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Hemispheric Specialization
Spatial Processing |
Left=nothing listed
Right=geometry, sense of direction |
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Hemispheric Specialization
Emotion |
Left (dominant)=Positive Emotions
Right=Negative Emotions |
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Two Theories of Color Vision
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1) Young-Helmholt's Trichromatic Theory
2) Hering's Opponent-Process Theory |
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Young-Helmholt's Trichromatic Theory
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3 types of color receptors that are each receptive to a different primary color
all other colors are produced by variations in the activity of these 3 receptors believed to work at the RETINAL LEVEL |
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Hering's Opponent-Process Theory
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3 distinct receptors
1)red-green 2)yellow-blue 3)black-white supported by the phenomenon of negative afterimages believed to operate in the THALAMUS |
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Learning and Memory
Temporal Lobes |
(cerebral cortex in the forebrain)
encoding, storage and retrieval of long-term declarative memories right=nonverbal memory left=verbal |
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Learning and Memory
Hippocampus |
(part of the limbic system; subcortical structure of the forebrain)
CONSOLIDATION of LONG-term DECLARATIVE memories (trasfer from STM to LTM) SPATIAL MEMORY Degeneration of the nuerons of the hippocampus has been linked to memory loss associated with normal aging and Alzheimer's Disease |
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Degeneration of the nuerons of the hippocampus has been linked to...
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memory loss associated with normal aging and Alzheimer's Disease
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Learning and Memory
Amygdala |
(part of the limbic system; subcortical structure of the forebrain)
FEAR CONDITIONING, LEARNING about REWARDS AND PUNISHMENT, and ADDING EMOTIONAL significance to memories |
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Learning and Memory
Prefrontal Cortex |
(part of the Frontal Lobe; cerebral cortex; forebrain)
SHORT-TERM MEMORY, WORKING MEMORY, EPISODIC MEMORY and PROSPECIVE MEMORY |
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Learning and Memory
Basal Ganglia, Cerebellum, and Motor Cortex |
PROCEDURAL MEMORY (memory for sensorimotor skills)
IMPLICIT MEMORY (unconscious, nonintentional memory) |
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James-Lange Theory of Emotion
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"You are afraid because your knees are shaking and your heart is pounding"
emotions represent perceptions of bodily reactions to sensory stimuli |
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Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
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emotional and bodily rxns occur simultaneously and a result of THALAMIC stimulation of the CORTEX and Peripheral NS
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Schacter and Singer's 2 Factor (Cognitive) Theory of Emotion
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subjective emotional experience is the result of physiological arousal and cognitive interpretations of the arousal.
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EMOTION AND THE BRAIN
Amygdala |
(part of the limbic system; subcortical region of forebrain)
PERCEPTION AND EXPRESSION of ANGER, FEAR, SADNESS, HAPINESS and other emotions EVALUATES incoming sensory info and determines its emotional importance |
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EMOTION AND THE BRAIN
Hypothalamus |
(subcortical region of the forebrain)
TRANSLATES emotions into physical responses (e.g., physical signs of fear or excitement) through the influence on the Autonomic NS and the pituitary gland |
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EMOTION AND THE BRAIN
Cerebral Cortex |
Left=happiness and other positive emotions
Right=sadness, fear and other negative emotions damage to left=severe depression, anxiety, agression and paranoia damage to right=indifference, apathy, emotional lability, or undue cheerfulness/joking |
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General Adaptation Syndrome
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Selye
mediated by ADRENAL and PITUITARY glands 1)Alarm rxn 2)Resistance 3)Exhaustion |
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Types of sleep wave patterns
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1)beta-alert, fully awake
2)alpha-awake, rested, relaxed 3)theta-relaxation 4)delta-deep sleep |
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Stages of Sleep
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1-4=non REM sleep
1=mostly alpha waves, some theta and beta 2=mostly theta, interrupted by sleep spindles and k complexes 3=delta waves appear 4=delta waves 5=REM sleep |
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anomia
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inability to name a common or familiar object, attribute, or action
seen in broca's and conduction aphasia |
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Huntington's Disease
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motor=early sx inc. fidgeting and clumsiness; later=athetosis (slow writhing mov't) and chorea (involuntary rapid, jerky mov't)
depression, apathy, anxiety, antisocial tendencies forgetfulness, deficiets in planning skills prob solving, decision making and eventually dementia assoc. with loss of GABA secretin neruons and GLUTAMATE EXITOTOXICITY in the BASAL GANGLIA (esp. the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus) |
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Parkinson's Disease
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progressive degeneration of DOPAMINE-CONTAINING CELLS in the SUBSTANTIA NIGRA
Positive Sx=tremor at rest, muscle rigidity, akathisia ("cruel restlessness") Negative Sx=postural disturbances, speech difficulties, bradykinesia (slowed movement) and mask-like facial expression depression |
