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209 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Protein components of muscle
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Actin (thin) and myosin (thick)
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Striated pattern fromed by the muscle filaments
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Are called sarcomeres
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Z line
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Where ends of actin meet – separates sarcomeres
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A band
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Dark bands – myosin overlapping actin
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H zone
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Myosin only
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I band
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Light bands – actin only
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Regulatory proteins bound to actin
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Troponin and tropomyocin
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In relaxed state…troponin holds tropomyosin
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In position to block myocin binding to actin
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When Ca++ levels increase…Ca++ binds to troponin
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Changes the complex to allow myocin to bind to actin
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Smooth muscle contains
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Calmodulin
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Ca++ activates calmodulin which then
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Phosphorylates myocin – allows myosin to bind actin
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Ca uptake stimulates the release of
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Ach into the neuromuscular juction
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Ach causes the membranes to leak Na+ causing
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Depolarization and opening of more Na+ and K+ channels
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The opening of the Na+ and K+ channels causes an
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Action potential to arise
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The action potential (AP)
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Propagates in both directions along the sarcolemma
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The AP opens Ca++ channels on the
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sarcoplasmic reticulum - increases Ca++ in the sacroplasm
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Ca++ diffuses into the sarcomeres and binds to
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Troponin molecules
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Myosin has
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ATP-ase activity
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When myosin attaches to actin it releases
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ADP + Pi
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After the contraction
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ATP binds to myosin to dissociate the filaments
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Rigor mortis occurs when
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ATP isn’t available and myosin stays bound to actin (~24 hr)
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The sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle is
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SER that removes Ca++ from the cytosol during relaxation
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NK cells have receptors for
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The Fc portion of antibodies that have bound to antigen
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LDLs are used to make
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triglycerides
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Excitatory neurotransmitters
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ACh and catecholamines
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Inhibitory neurotransmitters
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Glycine and GABA
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Resting membrane potential is
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– 65-85 mV…more Na+ outside the cell
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Tidal volume TV
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Volume of air that moves in and out during normal breathing
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Inspiratory reserve IRV
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Extra volume inspired above the tidal volume
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Expiratory reserve ERV
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Extra volume expired by use of active contraction
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Vital capacity
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Sume of TV, IRV, and ERV
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Residual volume
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The amount of air that remains after maximum expiration
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Anatomical dead space
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Where no air exchange takes place
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The primary unit of the lungs is the
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Alveoli – where actual gas exchange takes place
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O2 moves across alveoli walls by
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Diffusion, into capillary walls to the blood
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O2 concentration is greatest in the
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Alveoli
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CO2 concentration is greatest in the
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Blood
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CO2 stimulates the breathing center in the
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Medulla – hypoxia accelerates breathing
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CO2 reacts with H2O to form
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Bicarbonate ions
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The control center for breathing is the
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Medulla oblongata
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Hering-brever reflexes occur when the lungs expand so
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much that baroreceptors send inhibitory signals to the brain
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Maintaining rhythmicity of respiration is up to the
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Pneumotaxic center in the upper pons
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The cerebral cortex controls the
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Voluntary aspects of breathing
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The pyloric sphincter is between the
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Stomach and small intestine
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The Duodenum of the small intestine
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Receives chyme from the pyloric end of the stomach
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Most digestion occurs in the
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Duodenum
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Absorption of digested food occurs in the
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Jejunum and the ileum of the small intestine
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Segmentation contraction of small intestine
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Mixing movement – rhythmic contration
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Peristalsis
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Propulsive movement
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Chief (peptic) (zygomatic) cells of the stomach secrete
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Pepsinogen (precursor to pepsin)
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Parietal (oxyntic) cells secrete
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HCl – which activates pepsinogen to pepsin
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Parietal cells also secrete
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Intrinsic factor which is necessary for B12 absorption
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Mucous cells secrete
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A protective, alkaline mucus – protects walls from HCl
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G cells are epithelial endocrine cells (anteroendocrine cells ) that secrete
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Gastrin (a hormone) inhibits HCl secretion from parietal cells
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Other epithelial endocrine cells secrete somatostatin
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Which inhibits secretion from parietal, chief and G cells
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Pancreatic enzymes require a
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Neutral pH environment to function
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The hormone CCK from the intestinal mucosa
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Causes the gall bladder to contract
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Isometric contraction – muscle length stays the same
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Energy released at heat – produces tension in the muscle
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Isotonic contraction – tension stays the same
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Muscle shortens to move a load – work is done
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Golgi tendon organ
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Sense the degree of stretch
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Protein concentrations in the body
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Cells 4X > plasma > interstitial fluid
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Na+ is actively transported out of the
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Proximal convoluted tubule (Cl- passively follows)
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Water follows tha Na+ and the Cl- resulting in
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65% of the water being reabsorbed in the PCT
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In the descending loop of Henle
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H2O and salt passively leave the tubule
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In the ascending loop of Henle
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Cl- and Na+ are actively pumped out of the tubule
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The ascending loop of Henle is
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Impermeable to water (tubule fluid is more dilute)
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The distal convoluted tubule is also
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Impermeable to water
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The collecting tubule is
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Permeable to water but NOT to salt
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Permeability of the collecting duct is controlled by
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ADH – released in response to increased solute conc.
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ADH comes from the
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Posterior pituitary – causes reabsorption of water
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Aldosterone …
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Promotes Na+ reabsorption and K+ excretion b
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The actions of aldosterone
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Increase blood volume and pressure
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Bicarbonate is converted to
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Carbonic acid to allow it to pass the renal tubule wall
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Cardiac cycle is initiated by
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Impulse from the SA (sinoatrial) node
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Systolic period begins with the
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First heart sound and ends with the second
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Diastole begins with the
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Second heart sound and ends with the first
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The cardiac actions potential lasts
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~ 300 msec (long)
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The rate that the heart beats is determined by the
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Rate of diastolic depolarization
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Action potential goes from the atrium to the ventricle
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Via the AV (atrioventricular) node
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The actions potential continues through the
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Bindle of His and the purkinje fibers
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P wave
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Depolarization of the atrial muscle
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QRS complex
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Depolarization of the ventricles (repolarization of atria)
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CO (cardiac output) =
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SV (stroke volume) X HR (heart rate)
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Blood flow =
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Arterial pressure / resistance
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The greatest pressure drop occurs at the level of the
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Arterioles (large resistance to flow at this point)
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Pulsatile pressure in arteries =
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Systolic pressure – diastolic pressure
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Mean arterial pressure (MAP) = (related to blood flow)
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1/3(pulse pressure) + diastolic pressure
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Peripheral resistance is determined by
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Blood viscosity and arterial diameter
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Resting vascular tone is maintained by continuous
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Sympathetic activity from vasomotor centers (in medulla)
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Epinephrine binds to
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Beta receptors on heart, skeletal muscle, liver
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Angiotensin is a
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Potent vasoconstrictor
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Atrial natriuretic factor (peptide) is a
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Potent vasodilator, also cause excretion of NaCl and H2O
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Baroreceptors in the wall of the aorta are
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Stretch receptors that respond to arterial pressure changes
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Increased baroreceptor activity results in a decreased
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Sympathetic activity, Decreases HR, contractility and CO
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Average blood volume is
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5 liters
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Specific gravity of whole blood is
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1.055 (3-4x as viscous as water)
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Normal sed rate is
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2-10 mm/hr
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Normal adult hematocrit is
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~40%
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Hormones are secreted by
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Ductless glands, directly into the vascular system
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Anterior pituitary horm. (chemical hypothalamic control)
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ACTH, TSH, GH, LH, FSH, prolactin
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Posterior pituitary horm. (hormonal/neuronal control)
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ADH (vasopressin), oxytocin
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Pituitary gland produces
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tropic hormones
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ACTH – (adrenocorticotropic hormone) promotes
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growth of adrenal cortex, of corticosteroid secretion
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FSH – (follicle stimulating hormone) stimulates
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Graffian follicle growth and maturity, follicles to release estrogen and in males stimulates development of seminiferous tubules and maintains spermatogenesis
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LH – Luteinizing hormone) works with FSH to
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Stimulate complete maturation of the follicle, brings about ovulation and stimulates the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone and estrogen, in males cause the secretion of testosterone from the testes
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Adrenal cortex responds to ACTH from the anterior pituitary and produces…
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Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) , glucocorticoids (hydrocortisone) , androgens (estrogen)
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Adrenal medulla responds to the sympathetic nervous system and produces…
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Catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine)
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TRH (from hypothalamus) stimulates release of
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TSH from anterior pituitary
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T3, T4 are released by thyroid follicles in response to
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TSH, increase metabolic rate everywhere except the brain
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T3 and T4 act by negative feedback on the
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Anterior pituitary to decrease TSH release
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Alpha cells of the Islets of Langerhans secrete
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Glucagon – increases glycogenolysis to increase BS
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Beta cells of the Islets of Langehans secrete
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Insulin – promotes glucose uptake into cells, fat anabolism
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Increase in glucose causes an
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Increase in insulin and a decrease in glucagons
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Increase in amino acids causes an
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Increase of both insulin and glucagon
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Glucagons secretion is stimulated by
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Sympathetic NS
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Insulin secretion is stimulated by
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Parasympathetic NS
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Parathyroid hormone increases
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Ca++ levels, increased bone absorption, intestinal absorption and renal absorption – decreases plasma phosphate
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Vitamin D is activated in the
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Kindey – same effects as PTH but also cause reabsorption of renal phosphate
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Calcitonin comes from the thyroid gland and
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Lowers blood Ca++ - decreases bone absorption
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GH comes from the anterior pituitary and stimulates the
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Growth of longitudinal bones , increase blood glucose
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Somatostatin from hypothalamus
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Inhibits GH release
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In pregnancy high estrogen and progesterone inhibit
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Gonadotropin releaseing hormone form the hypothalamus – results in no LH or FSH
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Oxytocin stimulates the
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Release of milk from breasts (contraction of myoepithelial)
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Prolactin stimulates the
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Synthesis of milk and the secretion of milk into the alveoli
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Granulomatous inflammation is seen in
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Syphilis, TB and leprosy – conditions with poorly digested irritants and T cell mediated immunity
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Granulomas are collections of
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modified macrophages with a rim of lymphocytes
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Characteristic cell of granulomatous inflammation is
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Epithelioid cell (modified macrophage) – also present are Langerhans and foreign body giant cells
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Giant cells provide
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Cell mediated immunity
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Laminin and fibronectin are important in
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Holding the cells to the basement membrane
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DNA and RNA polymerases are dependent on
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Zinc
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The valve between the R atrium and R ventricle is the
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Tricuspid valve (AV valve) – chordae tendineae attached
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The valve between the L atrium and L ventricle is the
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Left AV valve aka bicuspid aka mitral
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The pace maker of the heart is the
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SA node
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The Ampulla of Vater is the place where the
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Common bile duct and pancreatic duct come together
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The Major duodenal papilla of Vater is where
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The ducts enter the duodenum
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Areas in the adrenal cortex glandZonula glomerulosaZonula fasciculateZonula reticularis
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AldosteroneCortisol, cortison and corticosterone Testosterone, estrogen and progesterone
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The sphincter of Oddi controls
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Entry of bile and pancreatic juice into the duodenum
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Merocrine secretion
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Released through exocytosis (salivary and pancreatic)
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Apocrine secretion
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Loss of part of apical cytoplasm (sweat glands, lipid secretion in mammary glands, ceruminous glands)
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Holocrine secretion
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Destruction of gland (sebaceous glands, testes, ovaries, tarsal glands)
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Loose (areolar) connective tissue
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Can heal after injury or infection – supports the epithelial lining of the GI, respiratory and urinary tracts
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The mineral component of bone is formed by
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Inorganic salts and calcium hydroxyapatite
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The cartilage at the epiphyseal growth plate is
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Hyaline cartilage
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The cartilage that makes intervertebral discs is
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Fibrocartilage
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The cartilage that makes the external ear is
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Elastic cartilage
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Epimysium
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Covers muscle – continuous with tendon
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Perimysium
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Surrounds a muscle fascicle
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Endomysium
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Surrounds individual muscle fibers
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White muscle fibers
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Larger, faster, anaerobic, poor blood supply, low myoglobin
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Red muscle fibers
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Smaller, slower, aerobic, rich blood supply, rich in myoglobin
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Cardiac m cells are similar to skeletal m except
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Cardiac cells tend to be branched and are smaller
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The T tubules in cardiac muscle are located
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Only at the Z disc
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Another name for the cell body of a neuron is
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Perikaryon/ soma
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Golgi type 1 neurons
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Well developed dendritic tree and long axon
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Golgi type 2 neurons
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Short axon (interneruons)
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One schwann cell can myelinate
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Only one axon
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One oligodendrocyte can myelinate
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Many axons
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Pacinian corpuscles detect
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Deep tissue vibration and deep pressure – found in deeper layers of skin, mucous membranes, conjunctiva, cornea, heart and loose connective tissue
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Meissner’s corpuscles detect
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Localization of touch and texture, light touch – found in CT of palms and soles and tips of fingers and toes
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Krause’s end bulbs
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Detect pressure
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Merkel’s discs are responsible for determining
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Continuous touch – found near Meissner’s corpuscles
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Ruffini corpuscles is a receptor for
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Continuous touch and stretch of skin
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Golgi tendon organs detect
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Tension in muscle tendons during muscle contraction
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Muscle spindles detect
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Change in length of muscle fibers – stretch receptors
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Three layers of arteriesTunica intimaTunica mediaTunica adventitia
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Inner – endothelium + basement membraneMiddle – circular arrangement of CT and smooth muscleOuter – longitudinal arrangement of fibrous CT
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In veins there is virtually no
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Intima or media – tunica adventitia is the thickest
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Lymph empties into the
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Thoracic duct – left side of heart, drains most of bodyRight lymphatic duct – drains upper right section of body
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Blood from the hepatic portal vein is rich in
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Amino acids, simple sugars and other digestion products
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The liver has a
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Dual blood supply (venous and arterial)
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Epithelial derivatives are impeded in the dermis
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Hair follicles, nails, sebaceous glands and sweat glands
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Sebaceous glands of the eye lid are
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Meibomian glands
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Sweat gland of the eye lid are
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Glands of Moll
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Arteries supplying the skin are located in the
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Hypodermis
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Papillary muscles of the heart ventricles are
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Extensions of the myocardium and by chordae tendineae, stabilize cusps of mitral and tricuspid valves
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Mitral valve (bicuspid)
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Between L atrium and L ventricle
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The lining of the bronchioles changes from
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Pseudostratified columnal epithelium c cilia to simpli ciliated cuboidal epithelium in the terminal bronchioles
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Left lung has 2 lobes
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Right lung has 3 lobes
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The resting rate for saliva production is
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0.5ml per minute
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Parotid gland is mostly made of
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Serous cells – secrete a watery solution with amylase
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Submandibular and sublingual glands contain
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Mucous cells – secrete mucin
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The colon has no
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Vili – contains mainly absorptive cells
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The rectum has extensive
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Goblet cells present
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The proximal tubule recovers
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85% water and NaCl , 100% of glucose and amino acids
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The distal tubule is controlled by
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Aldosterone (absorbs more NaCl as the body needs)
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The loop of Henle and the collecting tubule
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Concentrate urine by absorbing water – regulated by ADH
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Renal arteries arise form the
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Abdominal aorta
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Renal arteries branch into
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Interlobar arteries and then to arcuate arteries
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The arcuate arteries give rise to the
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Cortical radial arteries that supply the afferent arterioles
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The ectoderm gives to the
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Skin epidermis and the nervous system
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The GI tract is lined with epitheium from
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Endodermal origin
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The endoderm gives rise to
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Liver, oancreas, gastric and intestinal glands
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Smooth muscle is derived from
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Mesenchyme
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The three layers of the heart wall develop from
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Mesenchyme
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