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173 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Cerebrovascular Accident
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Brain damage caused by occlusion or rupture of a blood vessel in the brain (e.g. a stroke)
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Aphasia
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Difficulty in producing or comprehending speech not produced by deafness or motor deficits.
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Lateralization
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When functions or abilities are localized more in one hemisphere than the other
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Verbal behavior is what type of function?
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Lateralized
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Most language disturbances arise from damages to which hemisphere?
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Left hemisphere
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Broca's Area
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A region of the frontal cortex, located toward the base of the left primary motor cortex
Necessary of normal speech production |
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Broca's Aphasia
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A form of aphasia characterized by agrammatism, anomia, and extreme difficulty in speech articulation.
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Prosody
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Rhythm, Tone, and Emphasis in Speech
Stuttering |
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Use of changes in _____ and _____ to convey meaning in speech besides that specified by the particular words.
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intonation
emphasis |
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Stuttering
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A speech disorder characterized by frequent pauses, prolongations of sounds, or repetitions of sounds, syllables, or words that disrupt the normal flow of speech.
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Stuttering affects ___% of the population.
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1%
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Stuttering is ___ times more prevalent in men.
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3
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Stuttering may be due to overactive ______ or __________, which essentially leads to person trying to talk over his/her own voice.
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Broca's area
Delay in auditory feedback |
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Relation to Aphasia
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Reading and writing skills of people with aphasia typically resemble their speaking and comprehending abilities.
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Pure Alexia
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Loss of the ability to read without loss of the ability to write.
Produced by brain damage. |
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Whole-Word Reading
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Reading by recognizing a word as a while (e.g. "sight reading")
Common words that we've seen before. |
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Phonetic Reading
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Reading by decoding the phonetic significance of letter strings (e.g. "sound reading")
Usually involved for unfamiliar words. |
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Surface Dyslexia
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A reading disorder in which a person can read words phonetically, but has difficulty reading irregularly spelled words with the whole-word method.
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People with ______ _______ make errors related to visual appearance and pronunciation of words, not in comprehension of them.
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Surface Dyslexia
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What are the 3 enzymes that need B3?
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pyruvate DH,
alpha ketogluterate DH, branched chain a.a. DH |
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Visual Word-Form Area
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A region of the fusiform gyrus on the base of the temporal lobe that plays a critical role in whole-word recognition.
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Direct Dyslexia
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A language disorder caused by brain damage.
Can read whole words aloud without understanding them. |
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Developmental Dyslexia
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Reading difficulties in a person of normal intelligence and perceptual ability.
Of genetic origin |
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Phonological Dysgraphia
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A writing disorder in which one cannot sound out words and write them phonetically.
Cannot write unfamiliar words or pronounce simple non-words. (i.e. ghat) |
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Orthographic Dysgraphia
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A writing disorder in which one can spell regularly spelled words but not irregularly spelled ones.
These individuals can ONLY sound out words. Works well for words where spelling is similar to sound (tree), but not for words that are not spelled as they sound (busy). |
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Agrammatism
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Difficulty in comprehending or properly employing grammatical devices, such as verbal endings and word order.
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Anomia
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Difficulty in remembering the appropriate word to describe an object or attribute.
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Circumlocution
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Strategy by which people with anomia find alternative ways to say something when they are unable to think of the most appropriate word.
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Apraxia of Speech
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Impairment in one's ability to program movements of the tongue, lips, and throat required to produce the proper sequence of speech sounds.
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Wernicke's Area
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Region of auditory association cortex on the left temporal lobe of humans.
Important for word comprehension and production of meaningful speech. |
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Wernicke's Aphasia
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Aphasia characterized by poor speech comprehension and fluent but meaningless speech.
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Pure Word Deafness
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Ability to hear, speak, (usually) read and write without being able to comprehend the meaning of speech.
Caused by damage to Wernicke's area or auditory input to it. |
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Transcortical Sensory Aphasia
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Difficulty comprehending speech and producing meaningful speech and producing meaningful spontaneous speech.
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Transcortical Sensory Aphasia is caused by damage to _____.
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the brain posterior to the Wernicke's area.
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Autotopagnosia
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Inability to name body parts or to identify body parts that another person names.
Caused by damage to part of association cortex of the left parietal lobe. |
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Arcuate Fasciculus
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Bundle of axons that connects Wenicke's area with Broca's area.
Damage causes conduction aphasia. |
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Conduction Aphasia
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Inability to repeat words that are heard.
But, one has the ability to speak normally and comprehend the speech of others. |
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Tumor
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A mass of cells whose growth is uncontrolled and that serves no useful function.
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Mallignant Tumor
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A cancerous tumor.
Lacks a distinct border and may metastasize. |
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Benign Tumor
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A noncancerous tumor.
Has a distinct border and cannot metastasize. |
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Metastasis
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Process by which cells break off of a tumor, travel through the vascular system, and grow elsewhere in the body.
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Giloma
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A cancerous brain tumor composed of one of several types of glial cells.
Extremely fast-growing. |
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Meningioma
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A benign brain tumor composed of the cells that constitute the meninges.
Even though benign, can still cause seizures or other neurological issues. |
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Seizure
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Preffered term for epilepsy.
Second most important category of neurological disorder (after stroke) Defined: sudden, excessive activity of cerebral neurons. |
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_________ in US have seizure disorder.
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2.5 million
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Convulsion
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A violent sequence of uncontrollable muscular movements caused by a seizure.
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Partial Seizure (Have a focus)
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A seizure that begins at a focus and remains localized (caused by old injury or faulty blood vessel), not generalizing to the rest of the brain.
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General Seizure
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A seizure that involves most of the brain.
Some grow from specific focus, others are of unknown origin. |
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Simple Partial Seizure
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A partial seizure, starting from a focus and remaining localized, that does not produce a loss of consciousness.
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Complex Partial seizure
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A partial seizure, starting at a focus and remaining localized, that produces a loss of consciousness.
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Grand Mal Seizure
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A generalized, tonic-clonic seizure, which results in a convulsion.
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Tonic phase
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seizure wher the patient's skeletal muscles are contracted.
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Clonic phase
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seizure where the patient shows rhythmic jerky movements
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Absence
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A type of seizure disorder often seen in children.
Characterized by periods of inattention, which are not remembered. Catatonic trance |
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Status Epilepticus
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A condition in which a patient undergoes a series of seizures without regaining consciousness.
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Strokes
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Can impair perception, emotional recgonition/expression, memory, and language.
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Hemorrhagic Strokes
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A cerebrovascular accident caused by the rupture of a cerebral blood vessel.
Bleeding within the brain. |
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Obstructive stroke
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A cerebrovascular accident caused by occlusion of a blood vessel.
Blood clot; prevents flow of blood in blood vessel. |
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Embolus
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A place of matter (e.g., blood clot, fat) that dislodges from its site of origin and occludes an artery.
An embolus in the brain can lead to a stroke. |
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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
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A birth defect caused by ingestion of alcohol by a pregnant woman.
Can cause abnormal facial and deficient brain development. |
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Neural Adhesion Protein
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A protein that plays a role in brain development.
Alcohol interferes with this. |
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Phenylketonuria
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A hereditary disorder caused by inherited lack of enzyme that converts the amino acid phenylalanine to tyrosine.
Can be treated with low-phenylalanine diet. |
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The accululation of ________ causes brain damage.
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Phenylalanine
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Pyridoxine Dependency
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A metabolic disorder in which an infant requires larger-than-normal amounts of pyridoxine (Vitamin B6) to avoid neurological symptoms.
Consequences can include damage to cerebellum and thalamus. |
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Galactosemia
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An inherited metabolic disorder in which galactose cannnot easily be metabolized.
Consequences include damage to the cerebellum. Treated by milk substitute that does not contain sugar galactose. |
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Tay-Sachs Disease
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A hereditary, fatal, metabolic storage disorder.
A lack of enzymes in lysosomes causes the accumulation of waste products and the swelling of cells in the brain. Brain damages itself inside the skull. Cannot be treated |
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Down Syndrome
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A disorder caused by the presence of an extra twenty-first chromosome at birth.
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Down Syndrome occurs at a rate of
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1 in 700 births.
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Down Syndrome is characterized by
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moderate-to-severe mental retardation, and often by physical abnormalities.
Positively correlated with mother's age. |
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Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies
Fatal brain disease |
Contagious disease whose degenerative process gives the brain a sponge-like appearance.
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (i.e., "Mad Cow" disease) |
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TSE is transmitted through ingestion of protein infectious agents called _____.
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prions
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Parkinson's Disease Symptoms
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muscular rigidity, slowness of movement, a resting tremor, & postural instability.
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Parkinson's Disease is found in ____% of the population over 65 years of age.
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1%
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Parkinson's Disease is cause by
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the degeneration of the dopamine-secreting neurons of the substantia nigra.
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Treatments for Parkinson's Disease
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Deep Brain Stimulation & Gene Therapy
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Deep Brain Stimulation
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Electrodes placed deep in brain tissue to stimulate brain
Effective in supressing tremors |
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Gene Therapy
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Gene replacement surgery.
Mixed results: Often comes with side effects. |
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Huntington's Disease
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An inherited disorder that causes degeneration of the basal ganglia.
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Huntington's Disease is characterized by
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progressively more sever uncontrollable jerking movements, writhing movements, dementia, and finally death.
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Huntington's Disease is caused
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via abnormal development of a protein called huntingtin.
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Alzheimer's Disease
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A degenerative brain disorder of unknown origin.
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Alzheimer's Disease causes
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progressive memory loss, motor deficits, and death.
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Alzheimer's Disease occurs in ___% of population over 65, & ____% of population over 85.
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10% of pop. over 65
50% of pop. over 85 |
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Amyloid Plaque
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an extracellular deposit containing a dense core of protein
Surrounded by degenerating axons and dendrites. Common in patients with Alzheimer's Disease. |
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Neurofibrillary Tangle
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A dying neuron containing accumulations of abnormal proteins that formerly served as the cell's internal skeleton.
Sign that cells have died. |
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Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
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A degenerative disorder that attacks the spinal cord and cranial nerve motor neurons.
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Multiple Sclerosis
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An autoimmune disease.
Person's immune system randomly attacks myelin in the CNS. Normal transmission of neural messages through axons without myelin is interrupted. |
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Korsakoff's Syndrome
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A disease caused by a thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency, often caused by chronic alcoholism.
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Korsakoff's Syndrome causes damage to
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hypothalamus
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Korsakoff's Syndrome produces
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anterograde amnesia.
Amnesia of events after onset of Korsakoff's Syndrome |
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Encephalitis
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An inflammation of the brain caused by bacteria, viruses, or toxic chemicals.
Transmitted via mosquitoes, who pick up infection from horses, birds, or rodents. |
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Encephalitis can also be caused by
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Herpes Simplex Virus
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Herpes Simplex Virus
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A virus that normally causes a cold sore near the lips, but can also (rarely) cause brain damage
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Acute Anterior Poliomyelitis
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A viral disease that destroys motor neurons of the brain and spinal cord.
Can be vaccinated against this. |
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Rabies
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A fatal virus disease that causes brain damage.
Usually transmitted through the bit of an infected animal. Attacks CNS, and cerebellum and hippocampus (emotional center) in particular. |
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Meningitis is an inflammation of
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the meninges
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Meningitis can be caused by
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viruses or bacteria
by spread of middle ear infection into brain, or through infection of brain by head injury. |
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Meningitis can lead to _____ through interference with circulation of blood in brain.
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death
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Schizophernia is characterized by
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disordered thoughts
delusions hallucinations bizarre behaviors |
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schizophrenia is a ______ trait
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heritable
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Schizophrenia is marked by _____ and _____ symptoms.
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positive and negative
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Positive symptoms
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symptoms that manifest themselves through their presence
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examples of positive symptoms
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thought disorders - disorganized, irrational thinking
hallucinations - perceptions of stimuli that are not present delusions - beliefs that are obviously contrary to fact (persecution, grandeur, control) |
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Negative symptoms
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marked y absences of normal functioning
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examples of negative symptoms
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flattneed emotional response
poverty of speech lack of initiative and persistence anhedonia - inability to experience pleasure social withdrawal |
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Anhedonia
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inability to experience pleasure
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Positive symptoms of schizophrenia cause by ______ _______ _____.
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overactive dopamine neurons.
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Dopamine antagonists eliminate some of the _____ _____ of schizophrenia.
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positive symptoms.
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Dopamine agonists (i.e. cocain, amphetamine) produce some _____ like symptoms such as ____, ____, and ____.
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schizophrenia
disorganized thoughts, delusions, and hallucinations |
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Schizophrenia causes
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enlarged ventricles
reduced gray matter hypofrontality |
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Hypofrontality
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decreased activity of the prefrontal cortex
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Hypofrontality is believe to be responsible for the ______ symptoms of schizophrenia
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negative
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Bipolar Disorder
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serious mood disorder characterized by cyclical periods of mania and depression
-episodes of mania can last a few days or several months |
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Depressive episodes in bipolar disorder typically last ___ times as long as manic episodes.
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3
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Major Depressive Disorder
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Serious mood disorder that consists of unremitting depression or periods of depression that do not alternate with periods of mania.
-accompanied by feelings of guilt or unworthiness -suicide risk |
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Which disorder has the highest risk of suicide?
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Major Depressive Disorder
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Evidence indicates a tendency for affective disorders to be ______.
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heritable.
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Tricyclic Antidepressant
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class of drugs used to treat depression
inhibits the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin by slowing reuptake, drugs keep neurotransmitters in contact with postsynaptic receptors, thus prolonging postsynaptic potentials |
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Trycyclic Antidepressants ________ the impact of neurotransmitters.
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increase
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Specific Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI)
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antidepressant drug that specifically inhibits the reuptake of serotonin.
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Serotonin and Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitor (SNRI)
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Antidepressant drug that specifically inhibiuts the reuptake of both norepinephrine and serotonin.
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Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
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brief electrical shock, applied to the head, that results in an electrical seizure.
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ECT is used to treat _____.
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depression
-originally ECT was used to dreat disorders including schizophrenia, but effectiveness is limited soley to depression/bipolar disorder |
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Excessive use of ECT causes ____ ____.
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brain damage.
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Deep Brain Stimulation
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Electrical stimulation of frontal cortex can bring about remission in those patients suffering from major depression who do not respond to medication, psychotherapy, & electroconvlsiv etherapy.
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Vagus Nerve Stimulation
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Implanted stimulator sends electric impulses to the left vagus nerve in the neck via a lead wire implanted under the skin.
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Lithium
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a chemical element used to treat bipolar disorder.
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Monoamine Hypothesis
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Hypothesis states that depression is caused by a low level of activity of one or more monominergic synapses
-in other words, insufficient activity from neurotransmitters like norepinephrine and serotonin responsible for depression. |
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Neurogenesis
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Birth of neurons; process by which neurons are generated.
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Adult-born neurons regulate ____ & facilitate _____.
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stress
learning/memory. |
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Some evidence in animal model suggests that decreased ________ produces symptoms of depression but this has not been confirmed in humans.
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neurogenesis
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Exercise increases ______ and has been used to treat ______.
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neurogenesis
depression |
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______ _____ is a prominent symptom of depression.
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Disordered sleep
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Sleep Deprivation is one of the most effective _______ ________.
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antidepressant treatments.
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Sleep deprivation causes
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reduced sleep latency
reduced REM latency reduced slow-wave sleep increased sleep disruption |
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Seasonal Affective Disorder
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a mood disorder characterized by depression lethargy, sleep disturbances, and craving for carbohydrates during the winter season when days are short.
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Phototherapy
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treatment of seasonal affective disorder by daily exposure to bright light.
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Panic Disorder
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a disorder characterized by episodic periods of symptoms such as shortness of breath, irregularities in heartbeat, etc.
accompanied by intense, unreasonable fear |
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Anticipatory Anxiety
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a fear of having a panic attack
may lead to the development of agoraphobia may be another symptom of panic disorder |
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder
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Characterized by excessive anxiety and worry serious enough to cause disruption to one's life.
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Social Anxiety Disorder
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Characterized by excessive fear of being exposed to the scrutiny of other people
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Social Anxiety Disorder leads to
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avoidance of social situations in which person is called on to perform.
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Panic Disorder, GAD, and Social Anxiety Disorder Possible causes:
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heritability
misattribution of arousal overactive amygdala abnormal serotonin transporter (gene) |
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Obsessive-compulsive Disorder
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A mental disorder characterized by obsessions and compulsions
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Obsessions
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unwanted thought or idea with which a person is preoccupied
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Compulsion
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feel that one is obliged to perform a behavior, even if one prefers not to do so.
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OCD occurs in ___% of the population.
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1-2%
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OCD is slightly more likely in _____ than _____.
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females than males.
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OCD involves obsessions with _____ over germs or dirt, feelings of ____, & need for ____.
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disgust
dread exactness |
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OCD Involves compulsions of ___, ____, ___, & ____.
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counting, checking, cleaning, & avoidance.
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People with OCD are unlikely to ___, and practice social avoidance.
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marry
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Possible causes of OCD
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heritable
Tourette's syndrome - positively associated with OCD, repetitive ticks, (vulgar) words, muscle twitches. through non-genetic brain damage - infection, damage to basal ganglia, or overactive frontal lobe |
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Treatment for OCD
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Medication
Cognitive-Behavior Therapy -Frontal lobe surgery & Deep Brain Stimulation (in extreme cases) |
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Autistic Disorder
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A chronic disorder whose symptoms include:
failure to develop normal social relations with other people impaired development of communicative ability lack of imaginative ability repetitive movements |
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Possible causes of Autism
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Heritability
Brain Pathology |
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Brain trauma at birth
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Encephalitis (caused by herpes virus)
tuberous sclerosis (causes tumors to form rapidly) |
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Theory of Mind and the Diminished Superior Temporal Sulcus (STS)
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STS is responsible for detecting the actions of other individuals.
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Diminished Fusiform Face Area (FFA)
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responsible for recognizing facial expressions, maintaining eye contact, detecting emotion.
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Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
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A disorder characterized by:
Uninhibited responses - inappropriate outbursts, impulsivity problems. Poor planning Forgetfulness Lack of sustained attention Hyperactivity |
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Possible causes of ADHD
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Heritability
Function of time Under activity of dopamine transmissions |
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Function of time
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Delays in reinforcement render reinforcement relatively ineffective
however, immediate reinforcement is highly effective |
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Under activity of dopamine transmissions
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drugs that increase speed of dopamine transmissions alleviate symptoms altogether
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Stress
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a general, imprecise term that can refer either to a stress response or to a situation that elicits a stress response.
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"Absence of stress is ____"
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death
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Health effects of long-term stress
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Hypertension
Wound Healing |
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Hypertension
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stress causes an increase in blood pressure
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Wound Healing
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stress causes an increase in the time to heal wounds
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Effects of Stress on the brain
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Elevates glucocorticoid levels
-destroys neurons associated with hippocampus -diminished memory capacity Impairs development of primed-burst potentiation -impaired hippocampal neurogenesis Disrupts learning Prenatal Stress Hippocampal Damage |
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Prenatal stress
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increases size of the lateral nucleus of the amygdala
-increased fear response in infants Elevates glucocorticoid response to stress |
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Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
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A psychological disorder caused by exposure to a situation of extreme danger and stress
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Symptoms of PTSD
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Recurrent dreams or recollections (flashbacks)
can interfere with social activities and cause a feeling of hopelessness |
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PTSD includes many brain regions, including ___, ___, & _____.
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the amygdala (sensitive), hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex.
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In general, long-term stress:
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decreases immune function
increases the susceptibility to infection |
