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192 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the outer covering of the testes? And what is it an extension of?
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tunica vaginalis- covers testes anteriorly and prevents friction. Extension of peritoneum
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What is deep to the tunica vaginalis? And what divides the testes?
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Albuginea, made of dense connective tissue. Divides testes into septa (seminiferous tubules in each)
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Sertoli cells function? And hormone
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promote sperm cell development. FSH
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Leydig cells function? And hormone?
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produce androgens. LH
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What are the four spermatic ducts?
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1- epididymus 2-ductus deferens 3-ejacultory duct 4-urethra
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what are the three accessory glands?
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1-seminal vesicles 2-prostate gland 3-bulbourethral gland
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what family of hormones does FSH and LH belong to?
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human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
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what are the subunits of glycoproteins?
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two alpha and two beta
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the beta units of what two hormones are identical?
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LH and hCG
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what does sterol-carrier protein (SCP) do in the leydig cells?
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transports cholesterol into the inner mitochondrial memnrabe, so cholesterol is in close proximity to 1st enzyme to begin synthesis of testosterone
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what does sterol-activating protein (SCP-2) do?
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activates stererodogenesis
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What are the 3 cylindrical masses of the body of the penis?
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2 corpora cavernosa (dorsolateral) and corpus spongiosum (ventromedial)
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what is released at the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis?
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GnRH to stimulate release of LH and FSH in anterior pituitary
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where is GnRH synthesized in the hypothalamus?
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in the arcuate nucleus and preoptic area
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androgen-binding protein and location
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secreted in lumen of semineferous tubules. Keeps local testosterone levels high
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aromatase p-450 and location
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in sertoli cells. Converts testosterone to estradiol
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growth factors and location
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by sertoli calls support sperm cells and spermatogenesis
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inhibins and location
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secreted in semineforous tubules and interstitial fluid of testicle. Paracrine and endocrine action for negative feedback to pituitary and hypothalamus
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what promotes cholesterol synthesis?
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LH
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Binding of testosterone?
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45% bound to sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG)/testosterone binding globulin (TeBG). 55% bound to albumin. 2% free in plasma
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What cells support spermatogenesis?
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Sertoli cells
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what do the semineferous tubules open into?
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rete testes (reservoir for sperm)
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rete testes are connected to epididymis via?
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efferent ductules
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somatic innervation of the sperm?
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pudendal nerve (s2-s4)
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what is the cause of erectile dysfunction and what does it breakdown?
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cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase type 5 breaks down cGMP
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Sildenafil
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viagra, increases cGMP
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what gene is on the short arm of Y chromosome?
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SRY gene
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when does TDF have to be present for testes development?
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9 weeks
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For the primordial gonad--central medulla and peripheral cortex correspond to what?
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medulla- testes cortex- ovary
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what secretes anti-mullerian hormone?
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sertoli cells
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What must testosterone be converted to for development of a male?
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DHT
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Turner syndrome
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XO, lack second sex chromosome. Streak gonad=non functional gonad, remnant. Amenorrhea, sexual infantilism
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6 major sex organs of female
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ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, breats, vagina, vulva
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What is in the cortex and medulla of the interior tissue of the tunica albuginea capsule (female)
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cortex- gametes, medulla- vessels
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Dictyotene stage?
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development of primary oocytes arrested until puberty (from 8weeks gestation)
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What is a follicle made of?
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granulosa cells and theca cells
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action of FSH for female
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activate granulosa cells to produce estrogen, progestin, inhibins and activins
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action of LH for female
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act on theca cells to produce androgens and progestins
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ovarian cycle 3 phases
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1- follicular 2-ovulation 3-leutual
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what coincides with the follicular phase?
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proliferative phase
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what coincides with the luteal phase?
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secretory phase
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what does the LH surge coincide with?
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primary oocyte differentiating into secondary
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corpus albicans
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when corpus luteum regresses
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3 phases of mentrual cycle
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1- menstrual phase 2- proliferative phase 3- secretory phase
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ovarian steroid production?
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theca cells pick up cholesterol via LDL but stop because they lack aromatase, so testosterone diffuses into granulosa cells. Granulosa cells make cholestrol de nova from pregneolone but missing 17-alpha-hydrolase so diffuse to theca to make testosterone then back to granulosa to be converted by aromatase
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what falls and what increases in menopause?
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estrogen and progesterone decrease so much that LH and FSH become very high
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Capacitation?
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ability of sperm to penetrate the egg
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Cortical reaction
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prevents polyspermy, vesicles have glycoproteins
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what layer in glycoprotein does sperm bind?
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Z3
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Pronucleus?
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when female and male chromosomes decondense and joining of both pronuclei is the zygote
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Syngamy?
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mixing of chromosomes can be considered the end of fertilization and the beginning of embryonic development
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Decidualization?
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if fertilization occurs, it is specialized for pregnancy, blastocyst may promote, decidua basalis
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What does the blastocys differentiate to and their respective functions?
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outer trophoblast- supportive membrane. Inner cell mass= embryo proper
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Pinopodes
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start the implantation process. Finger-like protrusions of endometrium. They absorb uterine fluid, nutrients "swallowing things in lining of lumen of usterus" allows the blastocys to be closer to the uterus
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Functions of hCG
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1- maintains corpus luteum 2- immunosupressive agent 3- growth promoting activity of trophoblast and placental development 4- adhesion to trophoblast
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Steps of Implantation
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1-hatching 2-apposition 3-adhesion 4-invasion
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Synctiotrophoblast?
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invade endometrium lining. Gaps make contact with uterus until lacunae fuse with maternal blood vessel
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how is the intravenous space formed?
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fusing of lacunae and maternal blood vessel
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cytotrophoblast
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differentiate to chorionic villi which become fetal blood vessels
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O2 fetal oxygenation
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1- fetal Hb higher affinity for O2 2- high cardiac output of fetus 3-O2 carrying capacity of fetal blood late in pregnancy increases Hb concnetrations higher than that of adult 4- fetal blood lower affinity for Co2
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Amnitic fluid (2) functions
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1- mechanical buffer 2- excretion
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human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS 1 and 2)
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structurally related to GH. 1- converts glucose to fatty acids and ketones for energy 2- development of maternal mammary glands
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hormones in pregnancy
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progesterone and estrogen from hCG and corpus luteum. By 8wks- placenta. Estriol is major estrogen
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Maternal-placental-fetal for cholesterol synthesis
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mother supplies LDL and fetus supplies adrenal glands and liver supplies enzymes. Fetus does not make estrogens and progesterones, lack final enzyme to make DHEA. Placenta absorbs weak androgens and steroid intermediates are sulfated. Hormones only in placenta- cant be in fetus
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maternal response to pregnancy
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1- ↑ cardiac output 2- ↑blood volume, ↑ aldosterone- reabsorb water and salt, steroids-vasodilation- ↓peripheral resistance and renal perfusion 3- ↑alveolar ventilation 4-↑req for protein, iron and folate
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prostoglandins
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enhance contractions of uterine smooth muscle
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where is oxytocin made?
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in supraoptic and paraventricular nucleus
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oxytocin pathway
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Gprotein → PLC → IP3 → Ca ↑ → activate calmodulin → phosphorylation of regulatory light chain → contraction of smooth muscle
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what is the ferguson reflex?
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positive feedback loop during labor for oxytocin- contraction of uterus. Mechanical stretching can initiate labor
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positive feedback and labor
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prostaglandins initiate labor and oxytocin sustains it
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relaxin
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related to insulin. Produced by CL, placenta and decidua. Keeps uterus quiete during pregancy. Release may increase during labor and it softens and dilates cervix
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lactation drainage
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lobules → ductule → duct → empties in ampulla → lactiferous duct
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5 pathways of milk production
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1- secretory pathway 2-transcellular exocytosis/endocytosis 3- lipid pathway 4- transcellular salt/water transport 5-paracellular pathway
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How is prolactin released?
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1- made from lactotrophs under inhibtory control of DA. Primary lactogenic and galactopoetic effects 2- nipple stimulation- afferent pathway inhibts DA → inhibition removed, PRL released
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transcription of genes encoding milk production
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bind to tyrosine kinase associated receptors
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oxytocin and lactation
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stimulate contraction of myoepithelial cells surrounding alveoli and ducts of breasts- let down reflex. Maintains milk production and prolactin maintains it
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Pitocin
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synthetic oxytocin
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main function of fetal insulin
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growth factor
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IGF I and II
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mitogenic peptides in fetus. Birth weigh correlates positibely with IGF levels
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when does fetal production of TSH and T4 begin?
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2nd trimester, with development of hypothalamic-pituitary portal system
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why is there major growth in the third trimester?
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increased protein synthesis in the liver and muscle. Both the number and volume of muscle cells increase. 25-50% increase from muscles and 15% from fat synthesis
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Placenta as shunt
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half of cardiac output goes into placenta, shunts awar from visceral organs
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ductus venosus
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bypass liver. Enters vena cava from umbilical vein. Umbilical vein → ductus vensus → IVC → RA → foramen ovale →LA → LV → aorta
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foramen ovale
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hole in cardiac septum. Blood from vena cava goes from RA to LA
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ductus arteriosis
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bypass lungs. Blood from pulmonary artery to aorta. Enters RV because SVC is more anterior
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four periods of development of the lungs
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1- pseudoglandular period 2- Canalicular 3- terminal sac 4- alveolar
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what period is characterizes by production of surfactant by type II cells?
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terminal sac period
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what hormones does surfactant depend on?
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glucocorticoids increase number of type II cells and lamellar bodies. Cortisol stimulates regulatory enzymes needed in surfactant synthesis
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lamellar bodies?
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organelles in type II cells that aid in synthesis of surfactant
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how do fluid filled lungs prepare for air?
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increase in catecholamines and AVP. 1-decrease fluid production 2- initiate active reabsorption of fluid
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which vessels vasoconstrict? And what maintains vasoconstriction
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umbilical arteries. Stretching causes them to constrict. Maintaines by rise in PO2 and hypoxia
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what is consequence of hypoxia and hypercapnia?
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stimulate chemoreceptors that detect CO2 and send afferents to brainstem and send efferents to diaphram to stimulate first breath. Increase symp tone and umbilical occlusion
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when is surfactant released from type II cells?
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at the first breath
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colostrum
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early breast milk- higher fats and digestable proteins. High in ImmA.
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hepatic store of iron
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hematopoiesis for6-9 mos
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how long does it take for fetus to deplete glycogen stores
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12 hours
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neontal- hypothermia
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non shivering. Cold stress → activate TSH, E, TSH → T4. E→ stimulates conversion to T3 →liberation of fatty acids. T3- upregulate thermogenin
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thermogenin
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allows H to flow down their concentration gradient creating heat
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Respiratory distress syndrome
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deficiency of pulmonary surfactant, ductus arteriosis exacerbates, lecithins in blood.
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closure of placental circulation
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peripheral resistance increases. Close umbilical artery → ↑ aorta pressure → ↑ pressure in LV
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closure of ductus venosus
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smooth muscle constricts closing shunt. Pressure ↑ in portal vein
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closure of foramen ovale
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↑ blood flow to lungs → ↑ blood flow to LA →↓ pressure in RA. Reversal of gradient closes valve
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lung expansion
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↑PO2 and ↑ pH → vasodilation
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ductus arteriosus closes
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after a few hours. High pressure in aorta and decreased vascular resistance. ↑PO2 → smooth muscle contraction. ↓ prostaglandins decrease dilating effect. Thrombosis and clotting and fibrous tissue close tissue
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Retropulsion
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movement along tract and there is contraction. Stomach has a sphincter and if there is movement it bounces back and mixes with the contnetc of stomach
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What is in between the inner circular layer and outer longitudinal layer?
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myentric, auerbach's plexus
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what is the outer layer of connective tissue?
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serosa
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why is splanchnic circulation is special?
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1-very large 2-acts as a reservoir 3- feeds diverse organs 4-blood flow increases with all mechanisms that stimulate GI tract
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Ascites?
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caused by a liver blockage which leads to edema. Fluid enters abdominal cavity
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what is the intrinsic neural control?
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Enteric nervous system
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Submucosal (meissner's) plexus
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in sunmucosa, of small and large intestine
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Myenteric (auerbach's) plexus
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between circular and longitudinal layers from proximal esophagus to rectum
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what initiates afferent response?
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change in luminal parameters- acidity, volume, osmolarity
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control of ENS and projections
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afferent → interneurons → efferents/extrinisc. Extrinsic nerves → ENS → myenteric plexus → submucosal plexus
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Neurotransmitter of the vagus?
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Ach, cholinergic, stimulate acid secretion and promote digestion, postgang response
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vasovagal relflex
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loop initiated by afferents deteching changes in lumen, integrated by central autonomic centers. Both afferents and efferent are carried by the vagus
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CCK
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stimulate bile secretion, releases sphincter of Oddi, promotes enzyme secretion from pancreas and smooth contraction in smooth muscle
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GIP
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decreases abs of fluid and increases insulin release from pancreas
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Gastrin
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from G cells, increase acid secretion
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GRP
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releases Ach from vagal nerve endings to increase gastrin release
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Neurotensin
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release of histamine in smooth muscle
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somatostatin
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decrease gastrin, fluid reabs., flow of bile and smooth muscle contraction
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secretin
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increase bicarb and decreases acid secretion
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segmental contractions
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non-propulsive movement. Increase mixing
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persitaltic contraction
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cause propulsion and move contents in caudal direction
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Potentials of smooth muscle
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gap junctions, slow wave potentials, subthreshold potentials for action potential
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contraction of smooth muscle
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Ach → Ca stores IC and EC → Ca binds calmodulin
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Sphincters
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UES- from pharnyx, LES- esphagus from stomach, external anal sphincter. All skeletal muscle
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what inhibits and stimulates spincters
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proximal- stimulates distal-inhibits
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how is LES relaxed?
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mediated by vagus, and intrinsic properties of smooth muscle, inhib effects of VIP and NO
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primary vs secondary peristalsis
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primary- initiated by swallowing. Secondary- initiated by distention of the esophagus
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regulation of contractions after swallowing?
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neurons in medulla, intramural esophageal plexuses, vagus, intrinsic myogenic processes
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presence of food in stomach triggers what reflexes?
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gastroilieal (increase iliela motility and ileocecal valve) and gastrocolic (increase intetsinal peristalsis)
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motor activity and feeding?
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fasting- spikes in motor. Feeding- migrating motor complex decreases
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two functinal regions of colon?
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proximal- most fluid and electrolyte absorption. *bacterial fermentation. Distal- final desiccation, storage for material before defecation
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2 colonic movements
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1- nonpropulsive segmentation- slow wave activity that produce circular-muscle contractions that churn colonic contents downward. 2- mass peristalsis- move fecal matter in rectum
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3 phases of swallowing
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1-oral 2-pharyngeal 3-esophageal
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where are the receptors that initiate swallowing reflex
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on pharynx
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what part of the stomach secretes HCL?
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fundus and body
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what part of the stomach secretes mucus and lysozyme?
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cardia
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receptive relaxation
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vasovagal response
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effect of fat and gastric emptying?
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high fat decreases gastric emptying
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enterochromafin cells
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secrete histamine
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4 phases of acid secretion
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1- basal rate (independent of feeding) 2-cephalic (dorsal motor vagus) 3- gastric (distention) 4- intestinal (partially digested peptides)
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parietal cells secrete Cl and H in exchange for?
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K and HCO3
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what stimulates acid secretion indirectly and directly?
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Ach, histamine and gastrin. Indirect- enterchromaffin cells direct- parietal cell
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acid secretion inhibited by?
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CCK, VIP, GIP, Somatosatin, Secretin
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Pepsins
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endopeptidases that initiate hydrolysis of ingested protein
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what is mucus layer composed of?
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mucin, phospholipids, electrolytes, and water
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pancreatic juice is stimulated by
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secretin, CCK, Ach
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Amino acids, glucose at apical, luminal membrane are carried by?
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cotransport
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action of Cyrpts and primary cells of small intestine
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crypts- secretion primary cells- absorption
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action of primary cells and gland cells of colon
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primary- absorption gland cells- ion secretion
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what do crypts secrete?
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Na and K
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Site of absorption of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
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duodenum ad a little in rest of sml intestine
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site of absorption of Ca, folate and iron
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duodenum
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site of absorption of bile acids
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ilium
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site of absorption of cobalamin
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ilium via vit B12
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what is absorption of glucose and galactose at luminal membrane?
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Na dependent cotransporter (SGLT1)
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trasportof glucose and galactose out of basolateral membrane
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by facilitated diffusion
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how is fructose carried into the call?
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by facilitated diffusion via GLUT 5
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sources of protein
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enzymes, hormones, immuno-globulins in salivary, gastric, pancreatic, biliary and jejunal secretions. Desquamated intestinal epithelial cells, plasma proteins in sml intestine
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how do neonates absorb protein?
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abs intact protein from colostrum thru endocytosis
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where is the oligopeptide/H cotransporter
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at apical membrane
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where is the Na/K ATPase needes to keep Na low in epithelial cell
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at basolateral membrane
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lipid digestion
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starts with lipase. Fats → CCK release bile → decrease gastric emptying and open sphincter of Oddi → bile emulsifies fats in small intestina and produce micelle
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transport of lipid soluble and water soluble vitamins?
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lipid- transport with lipids into micelle. Water- tranported by Na dependent mechanisms
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functions of liver?
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1-metabolize and detoxify endogenous and exogenous substances. 2- kupffer cells remove bacteria, endotoxins, parasites and aging RBCs 3- convert hormones and vitamins to active form
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what does bile consist of?
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bile salts, cholesterol, phospholipids and bilirubin
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what does the liver synthesize?
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albumin, plasma proteins, glucose, cholesterol, fatty acids for TAG biosynthesis, and phospholipids
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what kind of transport occurs across the hepatocyte?
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vectorial transport
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location and composition of canalicular and sinusoid?
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canalicular- apical, bile. Sinusoid- basolateral, blood
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types of hepatocytes in zones of the portal acinus
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zone 1- periportal hepatocytes zone 2- pericentral hepatocytes
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Net transport across hepatocyte
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1-Na/K at basolateral, low Na in cell 2-Ca at basolateral low Ca in cell. Drive tranpsort at apical membrane
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NTCP
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Na-taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide. Transports unconjugated bile acids, progesterone, 17beta-estradiol sulfate. High affinity for unconjugated bile acids
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how are unconjugated bile acids transported
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by diffusion
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OATP-1
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mediates uptake of bile acids, exchange Cl for bile acid
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OATP-2
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transports various prostaglandin E2, PGF2 and thromboxane B2
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high levels of unconjugated bilirubin indicates
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hemolysis
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high levels of conjugated bilirubin
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liver disease or obstruction of bile ducts
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liver synthesis of albumin is dependent on?
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oncotic pressure
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hepatocytes use three major conjugation reactions
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glucouronate, sulfate, glutathione
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BSEP
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bile salt expert pump- transports molecules from apical membrane to canaliculus. Very high affinity for taurocholate
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MRP2 (multidrug resistance protein)
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organic anions that are not bile salts move from the cytoplasm of hepatocyte to canalicular lumen
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what are the 3 forms of endocytosis at the basolateral membrane?
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fluid-phase (uptake of ECF), aborptive (nonspecific binding of protein), receptor-mediated (receptor recycles to plasma membrane, and ligand is excreted into bile by exocytosis or delivered to lysosome for degradation
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Choleresis
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production of bile
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bile excretions?
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cholesterol, trace minerals, plant sterols, lipophilic drugs and metabolites, antigen-antibody complexes and oxidized glutathione
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the mechanical pumps of enterohepatic circulation of bile acids
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motor activity of gallbladder and peristalsis of intestines
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the chemical pumps of enterohepatic circulation of bile acids
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energy-dependent transport in terminal 1-ileum and in 2-hepatocyte
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what does liver store?
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fat soluble vitamins, copper and iron
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Wilsons disease
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accumulation of copper that cant be excreted
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Cirrhosis
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scarring of liver tissue, results in portan hypertension → edema in abdominal cavity (ascites)
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