Physical I

Front 1

Relates the integrated magnetic field around a closed loop to the electric current passing through the loop.

Back 1

Ampere's Law

Front 2

Maxwell derived it electrodynamically in his On Physical Lines of Force and it became one of Maxwell's equations

Back 2

Ampere's Law

Front 3

it can be written in two forms - the integral form and the differential form - they are the same and related by the Kelvin - Stokes Theorem.

Back 3

ampere's law

Front 4

Two problems : there is an issue regarding the continuity equation for electrical charge. Also, a second issue is that with propogation of electromagnetic waves.

Back 4

ampere's law

Front 5

It is extended by including the polarization current, reducing its original limited applicability. It uses a H field -

Back 5

ampere's law

Front 6

formulated in 1820, when a Lyonnese professor observed Oersted's discovery that a needle on a compass would ine up perpendicular to a current carrying wire

Back 6

ampere's law

Front 7

an equation that describes the magnetic field generated by an electric current. The field depends on te magnitude, direction, and proximity to the electric current - it includes the magnetic constant.

Back 7

biot-savart law

Front 8

it can be used in aerodynamics to calculate the velocity induced by vortex lines.

Back 8

biot-savart law

Front 9

is the ability of a body to hold an electrical charge - it is a measure of the amount of electric charge stored in a given electric potential. It typically uses a parallel - plate capacitor. C = Q / V

Back 9

capacitance

Front 10

measured in farads

Back 10

capacitance

Front 11

the inverse of it is called elastance - measured in darafs. The stray version of it is when signals are leaked between isolated circuits (cross talk). It is usually encountered by "feedthrough". Miller's Thereom can be used to fix it.

Back 11

capacitance

Front 12

it is found by solving the Laplace Equation with a constant potiential on the surface of the conductors.

Back 12

capacitance

Front 13

set of four partial differential equations that relate the electric and magnetic fields to their sources, charge density and current density. They are combined to show that light is an electromagnetic wave. The equations are : Gauss's Law, Gauss's Law for magnetism, Faraday's Law of Induction, Ampere's Law with Maxwell's correction.

Back 13

Maxwell's Equations

Front 14

relates electric charge within a closed surface (namesake surface) to the surrounding electric field. It relates the divergence of an electric field affected by charges. It states that the total flux is unrelated to the shape and size of the surface.

Back 14

Gauss's Law

Front 15

states that total magnetic flux is zero, it is equivalent to saying that the magnetic field is a solenoidal vector field since magnetic charges come in pairs (dipoles) and cancelling out.

Back 15

Gauss's Law for magnetism

Front 16

the theoretical single magnetic charge

Back 16

magnetic monopole

Front 17

Describes how a changing magnetic field is related to the induced electric field. it is the operating force behind electric generators.

Back 17

Faraday's Law

Front 18

For different circumstances, different units are used - Gaussian units, Lorentz - Heaviside units, and PLanck units

Back 18

Maxwell's Equations

Front 19

they were all found in the namesake's On Physical Lines of Force in his 1865 paper A Dynamic theory of the Electromagnetic Field.

Back 19

Maxwell's Equations

Front 20

Originally called Hertz-Heaviside equations, but later renamed to now by Einstein. Heaviside worked to eliminate the potentials that the namesake used as central concepts.

Back 20

Maxwell's equations

Front 21

Although these apply throughout space and time, practical problems are finite and the solutions are inside the solution region are joined to the reamainder through boundary conditions.

Back 21

maxwell's equations

Front 22

In 4 dimensional spacetime manifold - these reduce to the Biachi identity.

Back 22

maxwell's equations

Front 23

"the induced ef in any closed circuit is equal to the time rate of change of the magnetic flux through the circuit.

Back 23

faraday's law of induction

Front 24

was discovered at the same time by faraday and henry. Lenz's Law gives the direction of it

Back 24

electromagnetic induction. / faraday's law

Front 25

It generates EMF and is the phenomenon underlying electrical generators. A different implementation of it is its namesake disc - which causes it to flow in the radial arm by the Lorentz Force.

Back 25

faraday's law

Front 26

SI unit for measuring rate of flow of electric charge and measured by an ammeter

Back 26

ampere

Front 27

statement about the integration of differential forms on manifolds - generalizing several theorems from vector calculus. First discovered by William Thomson, then communicated to the namesake - who set the theorem as a question on the 1854 Smit's Prize exam

Back 27

Stokes' Theorem

Front 28

it states that the magnetic field has a divergence = 0.

Back 28

gauss's law for magnetism.

Front 29

describes the electrostatic force between electrical charges -

Back 29

coulomb's law

Front 30

its formulatino as an inverse square law was first proposed by Joseph Priestley.

Back 30

coulomb's law

Front 31

the scalar form describes the magnitude of the electrostatic force between two electrical charges. If it has direction, it needs vector form.

Back 31

coloumb's law

Front 32

he is known also for creating the first color picture and his foundational work on the rigidity of frameworks like those in bridges

Back 32

maxwell

Front 33

A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism

Back 33

Maxwell

Front 34

he introduced the concept of the electromagnetic field in comparison to forcelines that faraday discovereed. By understanding them, he advanced his work on light. He believed that the propagation of light required a medium, called the luminiferous ether.

Back 34

maxwell

Front 35

he had Thomas Sutton, inventor of the single-lens reflex camera, photograph a tartan ribbon tree times, each time with a different colour filter over the lens. He turned them into color.

Back 35

maxwell

Front 36

He was awarded the Rumford Medal for publishing at intervals a series of investigations with the perception of color and color blindness. He devised his namesake discs to create colors.

Back 36

maxwell

Front 37

gives the fraction of gas molecules moving at a specified velocity at any given temperature.

Back 37

maxwell's demon

Front 38

He published a paper "on Governors" in the Proceedings of Royal Society - It was classical on the early days of control theory - which refers to the centrifugal govenor used in steam engines

Back 38

control theory

Front 39

He is the namesake of : a mountain range on Venus, a gap in the rings of saturn, the largest submillimetre wavelength astronomical telescope.

Back 39

Maxwell

Front 40

measures current

Back 40

ampere

Front 41

measures charge

Back 41

coloumb

Front 42

measures inductance

Back 42

henry

Front 43

measures resistance

Back 43

ohm

Front 44

measures electric potential

Back 44

volt

Front 45

measures poewr

Back 45

watt

Front 46

measures magnetic field

Back 46

tesla

Front 47

measures weber

Back 47

flux

Front 48

relates the distribution of electric charge to the resulting electric field - "the electric flux through any closed surface is proportional to the enclosed electric charge"

Back 48

gauss's law

Front 49

the force on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields

Back 49

lorentz force

Front 50

maxwell's original paper had it as D, but it didn't have a reference to electric charge, although it is not considered one of maxwell's equations.

Back 50

lorentz force

Front 51

performed in 1887 at Case western Reserve - proved there was no luminiferous ether.

Back 51

michelson - morley experiment

Front 52

other instances tried to measure the speed of light, such as the Fizeau - Foucault apparatus, but only this experiment did the trick

Back 52

michelson - morley experiment

Front 53

vibrations were reduced by building the apparatus on top of large black marble, which was floating in a pool of mercury. the mercury allowed the device to be turned, sot hey could determine the effect of the "ether wind"

Back 53

michelson - morley experiment

Front 54

Kennedy and Illingworth added upon this experiment by including a half-wave "step" ridding the possibility of a standing wave pattern. Miller lateer built a device to eliminate magnetostriction. Additional better tests were conducted by Charles townes, the creater of the first maser.

Back 54

michelson-morley experiment

Front 55

later, one of the namesakes, not convinced, conducted additional tests with dayton miller at Mount Wilson.

Back 55

michelson-morley experiment

Front 56

describes, according to special relativity, two observers' varying measurements of space and time can be converted into each others' frames of reference. it states that observers moving at different velocities report different distances and different orderings of events.

Back 56

lorentz transformation

Front 57

if the space is homogenous, then it must be a linear transformation. Since relativity postulates that the speed of light is always the same, it must prserve the spacetime interval between two events in minkowski space. the set of transformations is known as the poincare group

Back 57

lorentz transformation

Front 58

a direct result of it is time dilation. They can be used to prove that magnetic and electric fields are different aspects of the same electromagnetic force. For relative speeds much less than the speed of light - it reduces to a galilean transformation in accordance with the correspondence principle

Back 58

lorentz transformation

Front 59

aka fundamental theorem of vector calculus and states that any sufficiently smooth, rapidly decaying vector field in three dimensions can be resolved into a sum of irrotational vector field and a solenoidal (divergence-free) vector field.

Back 59

Helmholtz decomposition

Front 60

electromagnetic radiation produced byt he acceleration of a charged particle, such as an electron, when deflected by another particle. It refers to the process of producing the radiation.

Back 60

bremsstrahlung

Front 61

it was discovered by nikola Tesla during high frequency radiation between 1888 and 1897.

Back 61

brehmsstrahlung

Front 62

describes the relationship between classical electromagnetic waves and photons. since photons are not waves - this arose.

Back 62

double slit experiment

Front 63

states that each point of an advancing wave front is in fact the center of a fresh disturbance and a new train of waves. [related to the double slit experiment]

Back 63

huygens principle

Front 64

an extension of the law of conservation of energy to the non-conservative forces in electromagnetic induction - it can be used to give the direction of the induced emf.

Back 64

lenz's law

Front 65

he discovered benzene, investigated clathrate hydrate of chlorine, made an early form of the bunsen burner and oxidation numbers and popularized the terms anode, cathode, electrode & ion.

Back 65

faraday

Front 66

he was at first an assistant to humphry Davy and specially studied chlorine ; he made studies of the diffusion of gases. He proceeded to liquefying many gases.

Back 66

faraday

Front 67

he discovered the principle of diamagnetism - when materials exhibit a weak repulsion from a magnetic field. He found that the plane of polarisation of linearly polarized light can be rotated by the aplication of an external magnetic field [ termed his namesake effect].

Back 67

faraday

Front 68

he demonstrated that the charge only resides on the exterior of a charged conductor since they cancel in the interior - this shielding effect is known as the namesake cage

Back 68

Faraday

Front 69

he did a lot of public service - doing investigations into coal mines, being an expert witness in court, and preparing high quality optical glass, he produced a report on a serious explosion at Haswell County Durham which killed 95 miners.

he investigated indiustrial pollution at Swansea, and wrote a letter to the Times on a subject of the foul condition of the Thames, which became a cartoon (the great stink).

Back 69

faraday

Front 70

He gave lectures entitled the Chemical History of a Candle on Christmas.

Back 70

faraday

Front 71

states that the current through a conductor between two points is proportional to the potential difference or voltage across the two points. I = V / R

Back 71

ohm's law

Front 72

a qualitative description of it can be developed using the Drude model, which rats electrons as pinballs passing through a material. Electrons are accelerated in the opposite direction to the electric field by the average electric field.

Back 72

ohm's law

Front 73

the complex generalization of resistance

Back 73

impedance

Front 74

it was considered monumental, and alternatives such as Barlow's Law were discredited. Fluctuations in the current, depending on temperature, are known as the Johnson-Nyquist Noise.

Back 74

Ohm's Law

Front 75

describes particle speeds in gases where the particles don't interact with each other but move freely between short collisions, it describes the probability of speed being between a given value as a function of the temperature.

Back 75

maxwell-boltzmann distribution

Front 76

applies to ideal gases quantum effects. It forms the basis of the kinetic theory of gases.

Back 76

maxwell-boltzmann distribution

Front 77

german physicist who restated the Carnot Cycle and put the theory of heat on a truer and sounder basis - which stated the ideas of the second law of thermodynamics and introduced entropy

Back 77

rudolf clausius

Front 78

thought experiment to show that the second law of thermodynamics only has a statistical certainty. It was written in a letter to Peter Guthrie Tait, though appeared again in a letter to Strutt.

Back 78

Maxwell's Demon

Front 79

the responses to this were suggested by Leo Szilard and Leon Brillouin which pointed out that it would have to be able to measure speed and would require energy. To this, Landauer raised an exception realizing that measuring processes doesn't require entropy.

Back 79

maxwell's demon

Front 80

real life versions and applications can be used in nanotechnlogy. It is used in a pneumatic device - Ranque Hilsch vortex tube which separates hot and cold air.

Back 80

maxwell's demon

Front 81

the gas Constant R / Avogadro constant

Back 81

Boltzmann Constant

Front 82

has the same units as entropy

Back 82

Boltzmann's constant

Front 83

electrons are emitted from matter as a consequence of their absorption from electromagnetic radiation of short wavelength

Back 83

photoelectric Effect

Front 84

First observed by Heinrich Hertz in 1887, and hence named "Hertz effect."

Back 84

photoelectric effect

Front 85

study of it led to steps to understand the quantum nature of light and electrons and caused the formation of the concept of the wave-particle duality.

Back 85

photoelectric effect

Front 86

When a surface is exposed to electromagnetic radiation above a certain threshold frequency, radiation is absorbed and electrons are mitted. Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard observed that the energy increased with the frequency (color).

Back 86

photoelectric effect

Front 87

it has been shown that it is not necessary for light to be quantized to explain this - the method to calculate the probability relies on "Fermi's Golden Rule."

Back 87

photoelectric effect

Front 88

it is decomposed to three steps - 1. the inner effect, where the hole left behind in a crystalline material gives rise to the auger effect where the photons are excited. 2. ballistic transport of the elctrons cause them to scatter - where they 3. escape from the surface

Back 88

photoelectric effect

Front 89

In 1839 - Becquerel observed this via an electrode in a conductive solution exposed to light. In 1873, Willoughby Smith found that selenium exhibited this.

Back 89

photoelectric effect

Front 90

Aleksandr Stoletov published results on this in 6 weeks - he discovered the proportionality between the intensity of light and the induced current (his namesake law) . Nikola Tesla described it in 1901 - where he described the radiation of small wavelengths which ionized the atmosphere.

Back 90

photoelectric effect

Front 91

a phenomenon described by the theory of relativity - where two observers are in different frames of reference, each carrying a clock that is similar. It seems that the others clock is wrong.

Back 91

time dilation

Front 92

it can occur because of (1) relative velocity between two observers & (2) difference in their distance from a gravitational mass.

Back 92

time dilation

Front 93

property of an object which causes it to create a magnetic field in opposition of an externally applied magnetic field, causing it to repel.

Back 93

diamagnetism

Front 94

only occurs in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field - generally weak otherwise. these objects are usually considered non-magnetic including water, wood, and most organic compounds, and petroleum.

Back 94

diamagnetism

Front 95

this of various molecular fragments are called pascal's constants. They are thought to have a magnetic permeability less than 1, and hence a magnetic susceptibility < 0.

Back 95

diamagnetism

Front 96

In 1778, S.J. Bergman was the first to observe that bismuth and antimony were repelled by magnetic fields, and hence this. Michael Faraday coined this term when he realized that all materials in nature possessed some form of this.

Back 96

diamagnetism

Front 97

objects that exhbit this can be levitated in state equilibrium in a magnetic field with no power consumption. Earnshaw's thereom seems to preclude this, however it only applies to bjects with positive moements, like ferromagnets and paramagnets, while these induce negative moment.

Back 97

diamagnetism

Front 98

describes the measure of opposition to alternating current. It extends the concept of resistance to AC circuits, describing amplitudes and current, and also phases. its usually represented by z.

Back 98

impedance

Front 99

it is defined as the frequency domain ratio of the voltage to the current. in general, it is a complex number, but has the same units as resistance, the ohm.

Back 99

impedance

Front 100

it can be measured by applying a sinusoidal voltage to the device in series with a resistor and measuring the voltage across the resistor and across the device. It can also be measured using fast Fourier Transform (FFT) to rapidly measure this of various electrical devices.

Back 100

impedance

Front 101

fick's laws describe this

Back 101

diffusion

Front 102

h

Back 102

planck's constant

Front 103

is used to describe the sizes of quanta in quantum mechanics. It was found in the namesake equation E = h v

E = h * c / (lambda)

Back 103

planck's constant

Front 104

louis de broglie extended its meaning to a constant of proportionality between the energy and the quantum wavelength of not just the photon but any particle.

Back 104

planck's constant

Front 105

a closely related constant is it "reduced" sometimes called the Dirac constant equivalent to it divided by 2 (pi)

Back 105

Planck's constant

Front 106

it's namesake was studying the problem of black-body radiation posed by Kirchoff (the theory that hot objects glow brighter than cool ones). Wien was looking as to why white objects are hotter than red ones, then the namesake added a new approach to wien's displacement law - creating his first equation.

Back 106

planck

Front 107

he introduced the first quantized model of the atom in 1913 in an attempt to overcome Rutherford's classic model. He solved this using a reference to Planck's work and used rydberg's constant.

Back 107

Bohr

Front 108

the josephson constant is equivalent to 2e / this. The watt balance was used to determine this as well.

Back 108

planck's constant

Front 109

his work included early telescopic studies about the nature of the rings of saturn and its moon Titan and the invention of the pendulum clock. He also investigated optics and centrifugal motion.

Back 109

Christaan Huygens

Front 110

He achieved for hsi note that light consists of waves - known as his namesake - freshnel equation which was pivotal in the wave-particle duality.

Back 110

huygens

Front 111

he formulated the second law of Newtons in quadratic form - e derived it using centrifugal forces. He is proposed explanations for reflection, refraction and interference of light assuming the existence of light particles.

Back 111

huygens

Front 112

he invented the pendulum. and prposed that saturn was surrounded by a solid ring using a refracting telescope and discovered the first of saturns' moons - titan. He then observed and sketched the orion nebula, which bears his name.

Back 112

huygens

Front 113

he established the wave theory of light and established that light was a wave. With a ripple tank he demonstrated the idea of interference. With his double-slit experiment he demonstrated that light was a wave.

Back 113

thomas young

Front 114

double slit experiment

Back 114

thomas young

Front 115

he has a namesake elasticity characterization known as his modulus. It relates the stress in a body to its associated strain. It is independent of the componeent under investigation.

Back 115

Young

Front 116

he has been called the founder of physiological optics - explaining the mode in which the eye accommodates itself to vision at different distances depending on the change of the curvature of the crystalline lens - first to describe astigmatism.

Back 116

young

Front 117

he founded the theory of capilarry phenomena on the principle of surface tension. His namesake equation with Laplace described this.

Back 117

Young

Front 118

His equation described the contact angle of a liquid drop on a plane solid surface as a function of the surface free energy. It was later developed further some 60 years by Dupre to accomodate for thermodynamics

he is also the namesake of a temperament, a method to tune musical instruments.

Back 118

Young

Front 119

In medicine - he devised a rule of thum to determine a child's drug dosage. In linguistics, he compared the vocabulary and grammar of 400 languages. He was the first who tried to decipher Egyptian herioglyphs. He used the language made by Johan David Akerblad - and then with Jean-Francois champoillon published a translation of the heiroglyphs.

Back 119

Young

Front 120

a way to characterize a discontinuous phase transition between two phases of matter. The line separating the two phases was known as the coexistence curve - which this finds the slope of that line.

Back 120

clausius - clapeyron equation

Front 121

type of scattering that x-rays and gamma rays go under

Back 121

compton scattering

Front 122

there is an inverse effect to this, werhe photons gain energy upon interaction with matter. Specifically, this is an example of inelastic scattering, but the origin of this effect can be considered an elastic collision between a photon and an electron. The amount that the wavelength shifts is called the namesake shift.

Back 122

compton effect

Front 123

IIt earned the namesake the 1927 nobel prize in physics.

Back 123

compton effect

Front 124

A description of it can be through the Klein - Nishina formula. Its effect is very important to radiobiology because it is the most probable interaction between gamma rays and high energy x rays. It can be used to probe the wave function of electrons.

Back 124

compton effect

Front 125

its inverse form is important astrophysics. The accretion disk surrounding a black hole is thought to produce a thermal spectrum, which does the effect into higher energies in the surrounding corona. It was also exhibited when photons from the cosmic microwave background move through the hot gas in a galaxy cluster

Back 125

compton scattering

Front 126

credited for the discovery of the elctron and of isotopes and the invention of the mass spectrometer.

Back 126

JJ Thomson

Front 127

won the 1906 nobel prize in physics.

Back 127

JJ Thomson

Front 128

he conducted his series of experiments with cathode rays and cathode ray tubes, which helped him make his discovery.
His experiments

1. he investigated if negative charge could be separated by magnetism. Perrin had demonstrated that neg charge is given off by the cathode in a cathode ray tube.

2. he investigated whether waves or rays could be deflected by electric fields - he thought previous experiments failed because they had trace amounts of gas.

3. measured the mass-charge ratio of the cathode rays by measuring how much they were deflected by a magnetic field.

Back 128

jj thomson

Front 129

he concluded that cathode rays were made of particles called "corpuscles" which came from within the atoms of the elctrodes, meaning that atoms are divisble. These coincided with the electrons that G. Johnstone Stoney prposed.

Back 129

JJ Thomson

Front 130

as part of his exploration into the composition of canal rays, he channelled a stream of ionized neon through a magnetic and electric field and measured its defflection. He concluded that neon is composed of atoms of two different atomic masses, thus concluding he found isotopes, which Frederick Soddy had previously hypothesized their existence.

Back 130

jj thomson

Front 131

his separation of neon isotopes was the first instance of mass spectrometry, which was improved and developed by his studnets F. W. Aston and A.J. Dempster.

Back 131

jj thomson

Front 132

he discvoered the natural radioactivity of potassium

Back 132

jj thomson

Front 133

He first began investigating X Rays using small vacuum tubes and discovered brehmsstrahlung. He also used Giessler tubes and became aware of the skin damage by Rongten rays, by burning himselves and his assistants.

Back 133

tesla

Front 134

He developed a namesake generator, along with his developments of the liquiefaction of air. Prior to publishing a patent, his lab was burnt down.

Back 134

tesla

Front 135

he demonstrated the "transmission of electrical energy without wires" and his namesake effect is the term for an application of this type of electrical conduction.

Back 135

tesla

Front 136

he made an experiment, then the mechanical resonance generated a resonance of several surround buildings, and people complained to the police. He then hti the resonant frequency and realized the danger and used a sledge hammer to terminate the experiment.

Back 136

tesla

Front 137

he explained the principles of rotating magnetic fields and induction motors by demonstrating how to make an egg made of copper stand on end in his demonstration of the device known as the "egg of columbus".

Back 137

Tesla

Front 138

he competed with edison because edison promoted DC while he promoted AC.

He filed the first basic radio patent and demosntrated a radio-controlled boat. He claimed to have created the "Art of telautomatics".

Back 138

Tesla

Front 139

when he was 81 he claimed to have completed a "dynamic theory of gravity" He conducted experiments with high frequency and high potential electromagnetism.

He also stated that Einstein's relativity theory had already been proposed by Ruder Boskovic.

Back 139

tesla

Front 140

he claimed to have created a "teleforce weapon" [death ray]

he was thought to have developed a namesake flying Machine (an ion-propelled aircraft)

he was obsessed with pigeons.

Back 140

tesla

Front 141

describes the spectral radiance of electromagnetic radiation at all wavelengths emitted in the normal direction from a black body at temperature T

Back 141

Planck's Law

Front 142

He did the oil-drop experiment

Back 142

Millikan

Front 143

This measured the charge of a single electron - and took all credit although harvey fletcher helped. - some credit and controversy also came from that the scientist used his results from his second experiment to measure charge - using only the good data - the work was done by allan franklin.

Back 143

oil-drop experiment (millikan)

Front 144

Won the 1923 Nobel Prize for Physics

Back 144

Millikan

Front 145

he was effectively the president of CalTech. He enterd into a debate with Arthur Compton over whether cosmic rays were composed of photons or charged particles.

Back 145

Millikan

Front 146

basic mechanism by which certain materials like iron form permanent magnets or exhibit strong interactions with magnets - it is responsible for most phenomena of magnetism in every day life.

Back 146

ferromagnetism

Front 147

to be one of these, it must be below the Curie Point or the Neel temperature

Back 147

ferromagnets & antiferromagnets

Front 148

the first investigatiosn of this are the pioneering works of aleksandr stoletov who measured magnetic permeability of these, known as the stoletov curve

Back 148

ferromagnets

Front 149

it is a property of not just the chemical makeup of a material, but its crystalline structure - there are a lot of them whose constiuents don't exhbit this property [called Heusler alloys]

Back 149

ferromagnetism

Front 150

they can be made by rapid quenching of a liquid alloy - their properties are nearly isotropic, and this results in low coercivity, low hysterisis loss.

Back 150

ferromagnetism

Front 151

a lot of them include actinite compounds below the curie temperature. In 2009, a team of MIT physicists demonstrated that lithium gas cooled to less than 1 K can exhibit this. this was the first instance of a gas exhbiting this property

Back 151

ferromagnetism

Front 152

the reason why substances aren't always in this state is because they are divided into many magnetic domains (weiss domains) - where dipoles point in different directions. the boundary betwen these domains where magnetization flips is called the Bloch/Neel wall. [domain wall]

Back 152

ferromagnetism

Front 153

When these objects are placed in a magnetic field, and the field is then turned off, the domains stay where they are because it takes a lot energy to put them back. This is shown by the barkhausen effect : as the magnetizing field is changed, the magnetization changes in thousands by tiny discontinuous jumps while the domain walls suddenly snap - which is shown by a hysteresis curve.

Back 153

ferromagnetism

Front 154

form of magnetism which occurs only in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field - the materials are attracted to magnetic fields. Unlike their counterparts, they do not retain magnetization in the absence of a magnetic field, because thermal motoin causes the spins to become randomly oriented.

Back 154

paramagnetism

Front 155

the magnetization of these follow Curie's Law or curie-weiss laws those with large Curie constants are called Super.

Back 155

paramagnetism

Front 156

it is equivalent to the Boltzmann constant multiplied by the Avogadro constant, but expressed in units of energy per Kelvin per Mole.

Back 156

gas Constant

Front 157

diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane. It goes from an area of high water potential to an area of low water potential. it goes from hypotonic to hypertonic.

Back 157

osmosis

Front 158

factors in this include the turgor., which is a colligative property. Another factor is the namesake pressure and namesake gradient - which is the difference in concentration between two solutions on the opposite sides.

Back 158

osmosis

Front 159

there is a reverse this process, which uses pressure to force a solvent through a amembrane and allow the pur esolvent to pass to the other side. The forward version of this can be used to achieve separation of water from a "feed" solution containingunwanted solutes.

Back 159

osmosis

Front 160

a time- dependent process governed by Brownian motion - their mathematical description was elaborated by Joseph Fourier in 1822, Adolf Fick in 1855, and Einstein in 1905.

Back 160

Diffusion

Front 161

Its applications outside physics were done by Louis Bachelier who in 1900 used a random walk model to describe the price fluctuations on financial markets. There are many forms of it including

Eddy
"facilitated"
"gaseous"
Ito
Knudsen
"Momentum"

Back 161

diffusion

Front 162

describes how the quantum state of a physical system changes over time. it is called a wave function or state vector.

Back 162

schrodinger equation

Front 163

it can be mathematically tranformed into heisenberg's matrix mechanics and into Feynman's path integral formulation.

Back 163

schrodinger equation

Front 164

He found a proper equation for the electron - and was guided by Hamilton's analogy between mechanics and optics. Using the equation he found, he computed the spectral lines for hydrogen and reproduced the energy levels of the bohr model. But then he used relativistic energy momentum relation to find the Klein-Gordon equation in a Coloumb potential

Back 164

schrodinger equation

Front 165

there are a couple variations : time dependent and time - independent. It satisfies the correspondence principle - in the limit of small wavelength wave packets it reproduces newton's laws.

Back 165

schrodinger equation

Front 166

ways to solve it include

Perturbation theory
Quantum Monte Carlo methods
density functional theory
WKB approximation

Hartree Fock method
Discrete delta-potential methods

Back 166

schrodinger equation

Front 167

also called rayleigh - jeans (thing)

Back 167

ultraviolet catastrophe

Front 168

it was a prediction that an ideal black body at thermal equiblibtrium will emit radiation with infinite power.

Back 168

ultraviolet catastrophe

Front 169

It was coined by Paul Ehrenfest. the problem was that a radiator wil have a natural vibrator, and each model will have the same erngy and most of the energy will be in the smaller wavelength portion.

According to theory, the number of electromagnetic nodes per unit frequency is proportional to the square of the frequency - thus implying that the radiated power per frequency should follow the Rayleigh_jeans Law - and be proportional to the frequency squared - thus the total power keeps getting higher an dhigher and higher frequencies - which is unphysical.

Back 169

ultraviolet catastrophe

Front 170

physical constant regarding atomic spectra in Spectroscopy. It reports the limiting value of the highest wavenumber (inverse wavelength) of any photon that can be emitted from the hydrogen atom - the spectrum of hydrogen could be experssed in terms of it

Back 170

Rydberg Constant

Front 171

1.097373156 x 10 ^ 7

Back 171

rydberg constant

Front 172

states that certain pairs of physical properties like position and mometum cannot both be known.

Back 172

uncertainty principle

Front 173

it was formulated at Bohr's institute at Copenhagen. It is a kind of observer effect

Back 173

uncertainty principle

Front 174

Albert einstein made the EPR paradox using the decay of positronium as an example against this.

Back 174

uncertainty principle

Front 175

the way in which the namesake argued for it is by using an imaginary microscope. Einstein and Bohr had debates about this.

Back 175

uncertainty principle

Front 176

einstein's slit experiment was a thought experiment challenging this. he also made a box to challenge this.

Back 176

uncertainty principle

Front 177

Karl Popper criticized this becaues he thought that if a partilcle with definite mometum passes through a narrow slit - the diffracted wave has an amplitude and then you can determine other information about the particle

Back 177

uncertainty principle

Front 178

hugh Everett III made a better formulation of it - while a better inequality used the Shannon information content of the distribution to measure it. This was Hirschmann's inequality. Other principles relating tot his include Benedick's thereom and hardy's (stuff) thereom

Back 178

uncertainty principle

Front 179

number of elementary entities in one mole.

Back 179

Avogadro's Number

Front 180

Jean Perrin proposed naming it in honor of the namesake - and he won the 1926 Nobel Prize in physics by determining it by several methods. I

Back 180

Avogadro's number

Front 181

the value of it was first determined by Johann Josef Loschmidt who found the number particles in a given gas. This is called now the Loschmidt constant and is proportional to the number

Back 181

avogadro's constant

Front 182

the earliest way to measure it was based on coulometry - which was to measure faraday's constant and divide by the elementary charge. Namely,

x = F / e

It can also be calculated by using X-Ray crystal density method.

Back 182

Avogadro's Constant

Front 183

method of analysis applied to problems of wave propagation and recognizes that each point of an advancing wave front is in fact a fresh disturbance a new train of waves.

Back 183

Huygens Principle

Front 184

The most common application of it is in the case of a plane wave on the aperture of an arbitrary shape. each point in the hole acts as a point source. In single slit diffraction this can be shown.

Back 184

huygens principle

Front 185

The qualitative argument used to get understanding of it only applies to apertures of arbitrary shape and is the solution tot he Helmholtz equation.

Back 185

huygens principle (fresnel)

Front 186

measure of how much of the energy is potentially available to do work and how much of it is able to manifest itself at heat.

Back 186

entropy

Front 187

its first definitino was developed in the early 1850's by Rudolf Clausius and essentially describes how to measure this in a system.

Back 187

entropy

Front 188

the second definition of it was developed by Ludwig Boltzmann which describes this is as a measure of the possible microscopic configurations of the individual atoms and molecules of the system.

It is equivalent to the thermodynamic (namesake) to within a constant number which is now known as Boltzmann's constant

Back 188

entropy

Front 189

it comes from the word translating to "transformation". the dimensions of it are energy divided by temperature (the same as boltzmann's constant and heat capacity - joule per kelvin)

Back 189

entropy

Front 190

in the gibbs free energy equation, the energy related to this is subtracted from the total system energy to give the free energy of the system.

Back 190

entropy

Front 191

chemical thermodynamic equation that relates the change in temperature to the change in the equilibrium constant given the standard enthalpy change.

Back 191

van't hoff equation

Front 192

lord byron was his idol - he went to study chemistry at the Delft Polytechnic Institute, at the University of Leiden at Bonn. He then studied with Friedrich Kekule. He received his doctorate under Eduard Mulder at the University of Utrecht

Back 192

van't hoff

Front 193

IN 1874, he accounted for the phenomenon of optical activity by assuming that chemical bonds between carbon bonds and their neihbors formed a tetrahedron, which accounted for isomers found in nature (stereochemistry) - which he shares with Joseph Le Bel

Back 193

van't hoff

Front 194

he published work on the geometry of science in La Chimie dans l'espace. Adolph Kolbe criticized him. He also did research on chemical kinetics - "studies in chemical dynamics".

Back 194

van't hoff

Front 195

introduced the concept of chemical affinity - showing a similarity between the behavior of dilute solutions and gases and worked on Arrhenius's theory on the dissociation of electrolytes.

Back 195

van't hoff

Front 196

awarded the nobel prize in chemistry for work with solutions - generally that very dilute solutions follow mathematical laws that resemble gases.

Back 196

van't hoff

Front 197

1903 chem laureate

Back 197

Arrhenius

Front 198

Left a cathedral prep school to study under Erik Edlund. He did early work on the conductivities of electrolytes. He was dismissed for his doctorate work, but he won the nobel prize later for it.

Back 198

arrhenius

Front 199

he formulated the concept of activation energy

he thought life was carried from planet to planet by the transport of spores - known as panspermia - and he thought of a universal language - proposing a modification of the ENglish language

Back 199

arrhenius

Front 200

came up with the definition for acids and bases - acids = substances that can produce hydrogen ions in solutions - bases = produce hydroxide ions.

Back 200

arrhenius

Front 201

developed a theory to explain ice ages and speculated that changes in carbon dioxide could cause warming through the green house work.

Back 201

arrhenius

Front 202

He applied the concept of dipole moment to the charge distribution in asymmetric molecules - and the units of molecular dipole moment are named in his honor.

Back 202

debye

Front 203

he made a namesake model that extended einstein's theory of speific heat to lower temperatures by including contributions from phonons.

Back 203

debye

Front 204

he extended bohr's theory of atomic structure, introducing ellipitcal orbits (also prposed by Arnold Sommerfield)

Back 204

debye

Front 205

he calcualted the effect of temperature on x-ray diffraction patterns of Crystal crystalline solids with Paul Scherrer (his namesake - waller factor)

Back 205

debye

Front 206

his work with his assistant Huckel - he developed an improvement on arrhenius's work on conductivity in electrolytic solutions - turnedinto the namesake - huckel equation

he developed a theory to explain the compton effect, the shifting of the frequency of x-rays in contact with electrons

Back 206

debye

Front 207

most famous for developing simplified quantum mechanics methods to deal with planar unsaturated organic molecules (and proposed pi/signma separation theory to explain alkenes.

Back 207

huckel

Front 208

a term introduced in 1889 by Svante Arrhenius defined a the energy that must be overcome in order for a chemical reaction to occur.

Back 208

activation energy

Front 209

a substance that modifies the transition state to lower the activation energy

Back 209

catalyst

Front 210

thermodynamic potential that measures the "useful" or process-initiating work obtainable from a thermodynamic system.

Back 210

gibbs free energy

Front 211

maximum amount of non-expansion that can be extracted from a closed system - can only be attained in a reversible process.

Back 211

gibbs free energy

Front 212

ON the Equilibrium of Heterogenous Substances - he engaged his thoughts on chemical free energy in full

Back 212

gibbs free energy

Front 213

one form of its namesake fundamental equation, the term involving the chemical potential accounts for changes in it resulting from and influx or outflux of particles, holding for an open system - in a closed system this term is null

Back 213

gibbs free energy

Front 214

the temperature dependence of it for an ideal gas is given by the namesake - helmholtz equation.

Back 214

gibbs free energy

Front 215

its total differential in terms of its natural variables may be derived via legendre transforms of the internal energy.

Back 215

gibbs free energy

Front 216

used to model the temperature-variance of diffusion coefficients, population of crystal vacancies, creep rates, and many other thermally-induced processes. [the basic principle is that the reaction rate doubles for every 10 degree C increase]

Back 216

arrhenius equation

Front 217

gives "the dependence of the rate constant k of chemical reactions on the tempearture T and activation energy.

Back 217

arrhenius equation

Front 218

there is a modified version of it that makes explict the temperature dependence of the pre-exponential factor. If temperature is arbitrary - then its description becomes overcomplete.

Back 218

arrhenius equation

Front 219

these describe the collective effects of changes in the earth's movements upon its climate. it says that earth's axis completes one full cycle of precession every 26,000 years.

Back 219

milankovitch cycles

Front 220

a quantum of energy, relating to a mde of vibration occurring in a rigid lattice such as the atomic lattice of a solid. They play important roles in a material's thermal and elctrical conductivities.

Back 220

phonon

Front 221

the properties of long-wavelength ones give rise to sounds in solids. In insulating solids, they are the mechanism by which heat conduction takes place.

they are a version of vibrational motion, known as normal modes in classical mechanics.

Back 221

phonon

Front 222

a measure of the chemical potential in the form of adjusted pressure. It reflects the tendency of a substance to prefera certain phase and can literally be defined as "the tendency to flee or escape."

Back 222

fugacity

Front 223

for an ideal gas - it is equal to pressure. Its namesake coefficient is defined as it / pressure.

Back 223

fugacity

Front 224

energy can be transformed but cannot be created or destroyed

Back 224

first law of thermodynamics

Front 225

originally, this was first formulated via Hesse's Law, but later by Julius Robert von Mayer - its first explicit statement was given by Rudolf Clausius.

Back 225

First Law of thermodynamics

Front 226

it is a concotion about the thermal equilibrium among bodies in contact - it comes from the definition of temperature. Its like the transitive property of thermal equilibrium

it was coined by Ralph H. Fowler in the 1920's.

Back 226

zeroth law of thermodynamics

Front 227

father of modern chemistry

Back 227

lavoisier

Front 228

he stated the first version of the law of conservation of mass. He also named oxygen and hydrogen and abolished the phlogiston theory.

Back 228

lavoisier

Front 229

he was an investor and the administrator of the Ferme Generale - a private tax collection company. He was accused by marat of selling watered-down tobacoo - and hence beheaded.

Back 229

lavoisier

Front 230

he demonstrated the role of oxygen in the rusting of metal as well as oxygen's role in animal and plant respiration. WIth Laplace he conducted experiments that showed that respiration was a slow combustion of organic material using inhaled oxygen.

Back 230

lavoisier

Front 231

he started some of the first truly quantitative chemical experiments - where he weighed the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.

Back 231

lavoisier

Front 232

Elementary Treatise on Chemistry

Back 232

Lavoisier

Front 233

he established consistent use of the chemical balance - used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory and he believed that radicals, which function as a single group, combine with oxygen.

He introduced the possibility of allotropy in chemical elements when he discovered diamond was carbon.

Back 233

lavoisier

Front 234

this is based on the conservation of energy and the path independence of energy changes.

Back 234

hess's law

Front 235

states that the energy change for any chemical or physical process is independent of the pathway or number of steps requires to complete the process. It allows the enthalpy change for a chemical reaction to be calculated.

Back 235

hess's law

Front 236

it can be expanded to include changes in entropy and in free energy which are also state functions. THe Bordwell thermodynamic cycle is an example of such an extension which takes advantage of it to determine gibbs free energy values.

Back 236

hess's law

Front 237

an expression of the universal principle of enetropy - stating that the entropy of an isolated system which is not in equilibrium will increase over time.

Back 237

second law of thermodynamisc

Front 238

the origin of it can be traced to Sadi Carnot's Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire which presents that motive power (work) is due to the flow of heat from a hot to cold body.

Back 238

second law of thermodynamics

Front 239

Clausius Statement : Heat generally cannot flow spontaneously from a material at lower temperature to a material at a higher temperature.

an exception to it is the isentropic process such as frictionless adiabatic compression

Back 239

second law of thermodyanmics

Front 240

Kelvin Statement : it is impossible to convert heat completely into work in a cyclic process.

the kelvin-planck statemtn of it says "it is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work."

Back 240

second law of thermodynamics

Front 241

Special cases of it are Gibss and Helmholtz free energies.

Back 241

second law of thermodynamics

Front 242

maxwell's demon violates this.

Back 242

second law of thermodynamics

Front 243

he developed the H-Thereom to investigate the link between the second law of thermodynamics with microscopic reversibility - and used the means of statistical mechanics.

Back 243

Boltzmann

Front 244

the rayleigh criterion is the basis for analysis of thermoacoustic instabilities in this using the rayleigh index over one cycle of instability.

Back 244

combustion

Front 245

a thermodynamic process in which no heat is transferred to or from th e working fluid - it literally means impassable.

Back 245

adiabatic or isocaloric.

Front 246

its namesake boundary is a boundary that is impermeable to heat transfer and the system is said to be insulated.

Back 246

adiabatic

Front 247

the attractive or repulsive force between molecules other than those due to covalent bonds or the electrostatic interaction of ions with other molecules

Back 247

van der waals force

Front 248

the electrostatic interactions between charges, dipoles, quadropoles and between multipoles - sometimes called the keesom interaction are forms of these

Back 248

van der waals forces

Front 249

all these type of forces are anistropic (which means they depend on the orientation of the molecules).

The lennard-jones potential is often used as an approximate model for the isotropic part of a total of this kind of force

Back 249

van der wals

Front 250

a state of matter ofa dilute gas of weakly interacting bosons confined in an external potential and cooled to near absolute zero. The bosons occupy the lowest quantum state and all wave functions overlap and the quantum effects overlap.

Back 250

bose-einstein condensate

Front 251

it was produced by eric cornell and carl wieman at the University of Colorado at Boulder NIST-JILA lab using rubidium aatoms.

Cornell, Wieman and Wolfgang Ketterle at MIT received the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics

Back 251

Bose Einsteine Condensate

Front 252

the state of this can be described by the Gross - Pitaevskii equation.

It was discovered in 1938 with Helium-4 ( a new superfluid) at temperatures less than 2 K (the lambda point).

Back 252

bose - einstein condensate

Front 253

vortices can exist in these by stirring these with lasers or rotating the confing trap which is created with a quantum vortex.

Through the Feshbach resonance rubidium-85 underwent a sweep of its magnetic field causing spin flip colliisons which made it stable.

Back 253

Bose-Einstein Condensate

Front 254

Current research have used optical lattices for these where the interference pattern from overlapping lasers used to explore the transition between a superfluid and a mott insulator.

Back 254

bose einstein condensate

Front 255

particles with half integer spins / particles with full integer spins

Back 255

fermions / bosons

Front 256

these are the force carriers of the electromagnetic field

Back 256

photons

Front 257

these are the force carriers which mediate the weak nuclear force

Back 257

W and Z bosons

Front 258

these are the fundamental force carriers underlying the strong nuclear force

Back 258

gluons

Front 259

name given to electrons that are bound together at low temperatures first described by the namesake in 1956.

Back 259

cooper pairs

Front 260

The namesake showed that a small attraction between electrons in a metal can cause a paired state of electrons to have a lower energy than the fermi energy - implying that the pair is bound.

Back 260

cooper pairs

Front 261

its pair state is responsible for superconductivity, as described by the BCS theory.

Herbert Frohlich was the first to suggest that this might happen.

Back 261

cooper pairs

Front 262

1972 nobel physics winners - and their work

Back 262

bardeen, Schrieffer, Cooper [BCS theory]

Front 263

he published an equation of state for real gases with megh nad saha.

Back 263

bose

Front 264

part of science of physics that describes the energies of single particles in a system comprising many identical particles obeying the Pauli Exclusion Principle.

Back 264

fermi-dirac

Front 265

particles that act as the carriers of the fundamental forces of nature.

Back 265

gauge boson

Front 266

the three types of gauge bosons

Back 266

photons, W &Z Bozons, Gluons

Front 267

hypothetical massive scalar elementary particle predicted to exist by the STanford Model in particle physics

Back 267

higgs boson

Front 268

it would explain the origin of mass in the universe and explain the difference between the massless photon, which mediates electromagnetism and the massive W & Z bosons.

Back 268

higgs boson

Front 269

its existence is postulated to be at a 50-96% risk.

Back 269

higgs boson

Front 270

was first theorized by Francois Englert and Robert Brout - working from the ideas of PHilip Anderson and were applied to electroweak symmetry breaking by abdus salamn & Steven Weinberg - and predicted by the electroweak theory

Back 270

higgs boson

Front 271

one of the quatum components of the theoretical namesake field.

it gives mass to all elementary particles including itself.

Back 271

higgs boson

Front 272

supersymmetric extensions of the standard model predict the whole families of these - in which the namesake mechanism yields two doublets.

Back 272

higgs boson

Front 273

Alternatives include

technicolor - a class of models that mimic the dynamics of the strong force as a way of breaking the electroweak symmetry.

extra dimensional higgsless models where the role of the namesake field is played by the fifth component of the gauge field.

abbott farhi models of composite w and z vector bosons

Back 273

higgs boson

Front 274

a particle made up of quarks held together by the strong force - they are either mesons or baryons. others may exist such as tetra quarks and pentaquarks.

Back 274

hadrons

Front 275

the best known of these are pions and kaons

Back 275

mesons

Front 276

the best known of these are protons and neutrons

Back 276

baryons

Front 277

1 quark + antiquark

Back 277

meson

Front 278

3 quarks -

Back 278

baryon

Front 279

these must have a zero total color because a phenomenon called color confinement - they have to be colorless or white.

Back 279

hadrons

Front 280

in other phases of QCD matter - these might disappear. The theory of quantum chromodynamics predict that quarks and gluons will no longer stick together - because the strong interaction diminishes with energy - known as asymptotic freedom.

Back 280

hadrons

Front 281

the pauli exclusion principle doesn't apply to these

Back 281

mesons

Front 282

they are classified according to their quark content, total angular momentum, parity and C-Parity and G-Parity

Back 282

mesons

Front 283

they were predicted by Hideki Yukawa. He named these for the greek word for intermediate because its mass was between a proton and electron.

Back 283

meson

Front 284

the first on e of these was found - the mu variety - called a muon discovered by Carl David Anderson.

The first true one was the pi version

Back 284

meson

Front 285

phase of matter or description of heat capacity in which unusual effects are observed when liquids, typically helium 4 or 3 overcome friction by surface interaction when at a stage (the lambda point) where its viscosity becomes zero.

Back 285

superfluidity

Front 286

It was discovered by Pyotre kapitsa, John Allen, and Don Misenser.

Hall and Vinen performed experiments detecting the existence of quantized vortex rings.

Packard found that the intersection of vortex lines wit hthe free surface of i -

and Avenel and Varoquax have studied the Josephson effect in He 4

Back 286

Superfluidity

Front 287

LD Landau won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1962 for describing this.

Back 287

superfluidity

Front 288

one spectacular result of this is known as the thermomechanical or fountain effect - if a capillary tube is placed in a bath and then heated the helium will flow up to the top as a result of the clausius - clapeyron relatoin

Back 288

superfluidity

Front 289

it is used in high-precision devices such as gyroscopes which allow the measurement of predicted gravitational effects

one type of them has been used to trap light and slow its speed greatly - in an experiment performed by Lene Hau light passed through a Bose-Einstein phase and slowed the speed of light.

Back 289

superfluidity

Front 290

He worked on the development of the first nuclear reactor. He won the nobel prize in physics in 1938.

Back 290

fermi

Front 291

He participated in a project in Rome known as the Via Panisperna boys.

They made important contributions to many practical and theoretical aspects of physics - including the theory of beta decay.

the chemist Ida Noddack criticized his work and suggested his experiments could have produced lighter elements.

Back 291

fermi

Front 292

his namesake paradox : that with the billions and billions of star systems in the universe - one would think that intelligent life would have contacted our civilization by now.

Back 292

fermi

Front 293

he formulated his namesake equation which describes the behavior of fermions and led to the prediction of the existence of antimatter.

Back 293

dirac

Front 294

winners of 1933 nobel prize in physics

Back 294

schrodinger + dirac

Front 295

his work for the wavefunction of the electron led him to predict the existence of the positron, the electron's antiparticle - which was his namesake sea.

Back 295

dirac